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Methicillin resistant -Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is an organism responsible for causing deadly infections in man, poultry and several other animal species. Ever since the discovery of MRSA in decade of 1960's, it has been isolated and reported in live poultry birds and their meat products worldwide. Strikingly, MRSA recovered from poultry share a common ancestry with MRSA isolates of human and animal origin. Furthermore, MRSA colonizes the skin and mucous membranes of both man and poultry. This colonizing ability of MRSA is not only a cause of nonresponsive infections in poultry but it can also be transferred to the humans handling birds at farms and slaughter houses. Moreover, the consumers of poultry meat can also acquire its infection. The cases of cross infections of MRSA between poultry and human has been reported. However, the most important difficulty to control MRSA and its interspecies transmission is the irrational use of antimicrobial drugs and inadequate biosecurity measures. Therefore, rational usage of antimicrobials and good biosecurity measures need to be adopted for prevention and control of zoonotic MRSA infections. This paper reviews the existing status of MRSA in poultry as a possible threat of zoonosis.

Highlights Nano-vaccines have promising potential to be materialized for personalized medical care Description of biological mechanisms for interaction making nano-vaccines successful Future insights for commercial up-scaling

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Current experiment was planned to investigate the deleterious effects of the graded dose of a atoxin B1 (AFB1) on White Leghorn Male Birds. For this purpose, 100 birds of 8 week age were divided into 4 equal groups and reared on feed contaminated with different doses of AFB1 for 10 weeks. Group A was kept as a control group and was fed with normal toxin free diet, group B, C, and D were offered feed containing 100 ppb, 200 ppb, and 400 ppb of AFB1 respectively. The birds were euthanized at the 4 th and 10 th week of the experiment. Clinical signs, behavioral changes, absolute and relative organ weight of testes, sperm motility were measured. Cellular immune response was observed through CCA, P-HAP, and antibody response against SRBC. Results showed a dose-dependent decline in the immune response of birds with the increase in the level of AFB1 in the feed. A signi cant decrease in the serum levels of testosterone, prolactin, and LH was observed. Grossly, testicular size and volume were reduced in ABF1 fed birds while histological examination showed mild to moderate and severe necrosis of testicular parenchyma, with partial to complete arrest of spermatogenesis. Very few spermatozoa were found in group C while they were almost absent in group D which was offered a diet containing 400 ppb AFB1. The above-mentioned results showed that AFB1 had severe toxic effects on the reproductive and immunological parameters of WLH birds in a dose-dependent manner.

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Alternative approaches and/or modified approaches to tackle resistance in gut microbes are need of the hour. The current study was planned to find the resistance modulation and toxicity potential of sodium alginate stabilized MgO nanoparticles and antibiotics against Escherichia coli (E. coli) isolated from the gut of Houbara bustard bird ( n = 105 fecal samples). The preparations consisted of gel stabilized ampicillin (G+A), gel stabilized MgO and ampicillin (G+M+A), gel stabilized MgO and cefoxitin (G+M+C), gel stabilized tylosin (G+T), gel stabilized MgO and tylosin (G+M+T), and gel stabilized MgO (M+G). The fecal samples showed 53% (56/105) prevalence of E. coli which was found to be significantly ( p < 0.05 ) associated with most of the assumed factors and resistant to multiple drugs. G+M+T showed the lowest ( 4.883 ± 0.00 μg/mL) minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) followed G+M+C, G+M+A, G+A, M+G, and G+T. Significant reduction ( p < 0.05 ) in MIC with respect to incubation interval found at the 16th hr for G+M+A, G+A, and G+M+C that further remained nonsignificant ( p > 0.05 ) onwards until the 24th hr of incubation. In the case of G+T and M+G, significant reduction in MIC was found at the 20th hr and 24th hr of incubation. Ecotoxicology and histopathology trials on snails showed mild changes in MICs of the preparations. The study thus concluded increasing drug resistance in E. coli of houbara bird while sodium alginate stabilized MgO nanoparticles and antibiotics were effective alternative antibacterial composites with mild toxicity.

Human and animal health care workers around the world are sounding the alarm for the development of new antibiotics to counter the ever-growing menace of multidrug-resistant pathogenic bacteria. However, there are increasing numbers of reports regarding extremely drug-resistant bacteria for which there are limited or no therapeutic options. So far the drug discovery has failed to keep pace with the rapidly evolving microbes which has resultantly lead to innovation gap related to development and marketing of new antibiotics. Moreover, microbial resistance towards antimicrobials is a way complex and multifaceted mechanism. Nevertheless, many strategies may be employed to minimize the impact and emergence of resistance. Use of antimicrobial adjuvants are one of such effective strategies. These adjuvants are chemically active moieties that have slight to no antibiotic action but may block antimicrobial resistance or boost action of antimicrobial. They are therefore administered along with antimicrobials and may be divided broadly into two important groups: The Class I agents having direct action on microbe, whereas Class II agents having direct action on host defense mechanisms to potentiate antimicrobial action. Antimicrobial adjuvants are a mean to suppress the emergence of bacterial resistance as well as rescue the antimicrobial activity of present drugs in a cost-effective manner, presenting an orthogonal approach to new antibiotic discovery.