Antibiotic-resistant bacteria are considered one of the major global threats to human and animal health. The most harmful of the resistant bacteria are β-lactamases producing Gram-negative species (β-lactamases). β-lactamases constitute a paradigm shift in the evolution of antibiotic resistance. Therefore, it is imperative to present a comprehensive review of the mechanisms responsible for the development of antimicrobial resistance. Resistance due to β-lactamases develops through to a variety of mechanisms, and the number of resistant genes is involved that can be transferred between bacteria, mostly via plasmids. Over time, these new molecular based resistance mechanisms have been progressively disclosed. The present review article provides information on the recent findings regarding the molecular mechanisms of resistance to β-lactams in Gram-negative bacteria, including CTX-M-type ESBLs with methylase activity, plasmids harbouring phages with β-lactam resistance genes, the co-presence of β-lactam resistant genes of unique combinations and the presence of β-lactam and non-β-lactam antibiotic-resistant
Livestock is an integral part of agriculture countries where ticks play significant role as potent pests causing considerable losses to economy and health. Drug resistance has made these pests supersede conventional therapies and control programs Nanotechnology here comes as an advancing and significant candidate alternatively able to reverse drug resistance. Nanoparticles, hence, against ticks may better be considered as nanopesticides that act in ways other than conventional drug efficacies. The methods of nanoparticles production include green synthesis, chemical synthesis, and arthropod-based synthesis. Pros and cons of these nanopesticides are by no means neglectable. Studies are fewer than needed to comprehensively discuss nanopesticides. Current review thus systematically covers aspects of ticks as livestock pests, their drug resistance, advent of nanotechnology against pests, their production methodologies, mechanisms of actions of ticks, and current limitations. This review opens several avenues for further research on nanoparticles as nanopesticides against ticks.
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