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In recent years, a growing number of studies are being conducted into the effectiveness of digital game-based learning (DGBL). Despite this growing interest, there is a lack of sound empirical evidence on the effectiveness of DGBL due to different outcome measures for assessing effectiveness, varying methods of data collection and inconclusive or difficult to interpret results. This has resulted in a need for an overarching methodology for assessing the effectiveness of DGBL. The present study took a first step in this direction by mapping current methods used for assessing the effectiveness of DGBL. Results showed that currently, comparison of results across studies and thus looking at effectiveness of DGBL on a more general level is problematic due to diversity in and suboptimal study designs. Variety in study design relates to three issues, namely different activities that are implemented in the control groups, different measures for assessing the effectiveness of DGBL and the use of different statistical techniques for analyzing learning outcomes. Suboptimal study designs are the result of variables confounding study results. Possible confounds that were brought forward in this review are elements that are added to the game as part of the educational intervention (e.g., required reading, debriefing session), instructor influences and practice effects when using the same test pre- and post-intervention. Lastly, incomplete information on the study design impedes replication of studies and thus falsification of study results.

Despite efforts for defining best practices for assessing Digital Game-Based Learning (DGBL) effectiveness, lack of scientific rigor is yet to be established. This has led to academics and educational practitioners doubting the quality of evidence and practical value of scientific research in educational settings. Hence, the present manuscript aims to test the feasibility of previously defined best practices by means of 3 feasibility studies: one in formal, one in health and one in corporate education. Results firstly show a more nuanced view on previously defined best practices regarding control groups: a) inclusion of an educational activity is not always desirable and depends on whether absolute or relative effectiveness is assessed and b) keeping instructional time equal in experimental and control group does not comply with the time efficiency outcome of DGBL. Secondly, several non-intervention related elements jeopardizing internal validity have been established: a) failed randomization, which can be tackled with blocked randomization and b) pre-test effects, which can be tackled with carefully piloted parallel versions of tests. Lastly, additional indicators for motivational and efficiency outcomes in a selfpaced distance learning context have been established: a) motivation during/after the training should be expanded with motivation to start playing and b) time required to finish the training should be expended with time required to follow-up on learners. Recommendations in the present manuscript are not exhaustive or generalizable to all contexts, but do provide preliminary insights into feasible experimental designs for DGBL effectiveness studies.

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This paper presents the results of a study concerning the use of online profile pages by adolescents to know more about "offline" friends and acquaintances. Previous research has indicated that social networking sites (SNSs) are used to gather information on new online contacts. However, several studies have demonstrated a substantial overlap between offline and online social networks. Hence, we question whether online connections are meaningful in gathering information on offline friends and acquaintances. First, the results indicate that a combination of passive uncertainty reduction (monitoring a target's profile) and interactive uncertainty reduction (communication through the target's profile) explains a considerable amount of variance in the level of uncertainty about both friends and acquaintances. More specifically, adolescents generally get to know much more about their acquaintances. Second, the results of online uncertainty reduction positively affect the degree of self-disclosure, which is imperative in building a solid friend relation. Furthermore, we find that uncertainty reduction strategies positively mediate the effect of social anxiety on the level of certainty about friends. This implies that socially anxious teenagers benefit from SNSs by getting the conditions right to build a more solid relation with their friends. Hence, we conclude that SNSs play a substantial role in today's adolescents' everyday interpersonal communication.

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