Over the past two decades, globalized outsourcing in the semiconductor supply chain has lowered manufacturing costs and shortened the time-to-market for original equipment manufacturers (OEMs). However, such outsourcing has rendered the printed circuit boards (PCBs) vulnerable to malicious activities and alterations on a global scale. In this article, we take an in-depth look into one such attack, called the “Big Hack,” that was recently reported by Bloomberg Buisnessweek. The article provides background on the Big Hack from three perspectives: an attacker, a security investigator, and the societal impacts. This study provides details on vulnerabilities in the modern PCB supply chain, the possible attacks, and the existing and emerging countermeasures. The necessity for novel visual inspection techniques for PCB assurance is emphasized throughout the article. Further, a review of various imaging modalities, image analysis algorithms, and open research challenges are provided for automated visual inspection.

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Reconfigurable hardware development and debugging tools aspire to provide software-like productivity. A major impediment, however, is the lack of a module linkage capability permitting hardware blocks to be compiled concurrently, limiting the effective use of multi-core and multiprocessor platforms. Although modular and incremental design flows can reuse the layouts of unmodified blocks, non-local changes to the logical hierarchy or physical layout, or addition of debug circuitry, generally force complete re-implementation. We describe the PATIS dynamic floorplanner, targeting development environments in which some circuit speed and area optimization may be sacrificed for improved implementation and debug turnaround. The floorplan consists of partial modules with structured physical interfaces observable through configuration readback rather than synthesized logic analysis circuitry, allowing module ports to be passively probed without disturbing the layout. Although PATIS supports incremental design, complete re-implementation is still rapid because the partial bitstream for each block is generated by independent and concurrent invocations of the standard Xilinx tools running on separate cores or hosts. A continuous background task proactively generates floorplan variants to accelerate global layout changes. The partial reconfiguration design flow is easier to automate in PATIS because run-time module swapping is not required, suggesting that partial reconfiguration may serve a useful role in large-scale static design.

Design validation is the most time-consuming task in the FPGA design cycle. Although manufacturers and third-party vendors offer a range of tools that provide visibility and control of the different stages of a design, many require that the design be fully re-implemented for even simple parameter modifications or do not allow the design to be run at full speed. Designs are typically first modeled using a high-level language then later rewritten in a hardware description language, first for simulation and then later modified for synthesis. IP and third-party cores may differ during these final two stages complicating development and validation. The developed approach provides two means of directly validating synthesized hardware designs. The first allows the original high-level model written in C or C++ to be directly coupled to the synthesized hardware, abstracting away the traditional gate-level view of designs. A high-level programmatic interface allows the synthesized design to be validated directly by the software reference model. The second approach provides an alternative view to FPGAs within the scope of a traditional software debugger. This debug framework leverages partially reconfigurable regions to accelerate the modification of dynamic, software-like breakpoints for low-level analysis and provides a automatable, scriptable, command-line interface directly to a running design on an FPGA.

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Design validation is the most time-consuming task in the FPGA design cycle. Although manufacturers and third-party vendors offer a range of tools that provide different perspectives of a design, many require that the design be fully re-implemented for even simple parameter modifications or do not allow the design to be run at full speed. Designs are typically first modeled using a high-level language then later rewritten in a hardware description language, first for simulation and then later modified for synthesis. IP and third-party cores may differ during these final two stages complicating development and validation. The developed approach provides two means of directly validating synthesized hardware designs.The first allows the original high-level model written in C or C++ to be directly coupled to the synthesized hardware, abstracting away the traditional gate-level view of designs. A high-level programmatic interface allows the synthesized design to be validated with the same arbitrary test data on the same framework as the hardware. The second approach provides an alternative view to FPGAs within the scope of a traditional software debugger.This debug framework leverages partially reconfigurable regions to accelerate the modification of dynamic, software-like breakpoints for low-level analysis and provides a automatable, scriptable, command-line interface directly to a running design on an FPGA.

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