Due to their high volume, general-purpose processors, and now chip multiprocessors (CMPs), are much more cost effective than ASICs, but lag significantly in terms of performance and energy efficiency. This paper explores the sources of these performance and energy overheads in general-purpose processing systems by quantifying the overheads of a 720p HD H.264 encoder running on a general-purpose CMP system. It then explores methods to eliminate these overheads by transforming the CPU into a specialized system for H.264 encoding. We evaluate the gains from customizations useful to broad classes of algorithms, such as SIMD units, as well as those specific to particular computation, such as customized storage and functional units.The ASIC is 500x more energy efficient than our original fourprocessor CMP. Broadly, applicable optimizations improve performance by 10x and energy by 7x. However, the very low energy costs of actual core ops (100s fJ in 90nm) mean that over 90% of the energy used in these solutions is still "overhead". Achieving ASIC-like performance and efficiency requires algorithm-specific optimizations. For each sub-algorithm of H.264, we create a large, specialized functional unit that is capable of executing 100s of operations per instruction. This improves performance and energy by an additional 25x and the final customized CMP matches an ASIC solution's performance within 3x of its energy and within comparable area.

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o C To b E r 2 0 1 1 | vo L . 5 4 | N o. 1 0 | c o m m u n i c at i o n s o f t he acm 85 abstractScaling the performance of a power limited processor requires decreasing the energy expended per instruction executed, since energy/op * op/second is power. To better understand what improvement in processor efficiency is possible, and what must be done to capture it, we quantify the sources of the performance and energy overheads of a 720p HD H.264 encoder running on a general-purpose fourprocessor CMP system. The initial overheads are large: the CMP was 500× less energy efficient than an Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC) doing the same job. We explore methods to eliminate these overheads by transforming the CPU into a specialized system for H.264 encoding. Broadly applicable optimizations like single instruction, multiple data (SIMD) units improve CMP performance by 14× and energy by 10×, which is still 50× worse than an ASIC. The problem is that the basic operation costs in H.264 are so small that even with a SIMD unit doing over 10 ops per cycle, 90% of the energy is still overhead. Achieving ASIClike performance and efficiency requires algorithm-specific optimizations. For each subalgorithm of H.264, we create a large, specialized functional/storage unit capable of executing hundreds of operations per instruction. This improves energy efficiency by 160× (instead of 10×), and the final customized CMP reaches the same performance and within 3× of an ASIC solution's energy in comparable area.

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This paper focuses on the trade-off between flexibility and efficiency in specialized computing. We observe that specialized units achieve most of their efficiency gains by tuning data storage and compute structures and their connectivity to the data-flow and data-locality patterns in the kernels. Hence, by identifying key data-flow patterns used in a domain, we can create efficient engines that can be programmed and reused across a wide range of applications. We present an example, the Convolution Engine (CE), specialized for the convolution-like data-flow that is common in computational photography, image processing, and video processing applications. CE achieves energy efficiency by capturing data reuse patterns, eliminating data transfer overheads, and enabling a large number of operations per memory access. We quantify the tradeoffs in efficiency and flexibility and demonstrate that CE is within a factor of 2-3x of the energy and area efficiency of custom units optimized for a single kernel. CE improves energy and area efficiency by 8-15x over a SIMD engine for most applications.

General-purpose processors, while tremendously versatile, pay a huge cost for their flexibility by wasting over 99% of the energy in programmability overheads. We observe that reducing this waste requires tuning data storage and compute structures and their connectivity to the data-flow and data-locality patterns in the algorithms. Hence, by backing off from full programmability and instead targeting key data-flow patterns used in a domain, we can create efficient engines that can be programmed and reused across a wide range of applications within that domain.We present the Convolution Engine (CE)-a programmable processor specialized for the convolution-like data-flow prevalent in computational photography, computer vision, and video processing. The CE achieves energy efficiency by capturing data-reuse patterns, eliminating data transfer overheads, and enabling a large number of operations per memory access. We demonstrate that the CE is within a factor of 2-3× of the energy and area efficiency of custom units optimized for a single kernel. The CE improves energy and area efficiency by 8-15× over data-parallel Single Instruction Multiple Data (SIMD) engines for most image processing applications. INTRODUCTIONProcessors, whether they are the relatively simple RISC cores in embedded platforms, or the multibillion transistor CPU chips in Server/Desktop computers, are extremely versatile computing machines. They can handle virtually any type of workload ranging from web applications, personal spreadsheets, image processing workloads, and embedded control applications to database and financial applications. Moreover, they benefit from well-established programming abstractions and development tools, and decades of programming knowledge making it very easy to code new applications.Processors, however, are also inefficient computing machines. The overheads of predicting, fetching, decoding, scheduling, and committing instructions account for most of the power consumption in a general-purpose processor core. 2, 7, 16 As a result they often consume up to 1000× more energy than a specialized hardware block designed to perform just that particular task. These specialized hardware blocks also typically offer hundreds of times higher performance using a smaller silicon area. Despite these large inefficiencies, processors form the core of most computing systems owing to their versatility and reuse.

Wireless communication today supports heterogeneous wireless devices with a number of different wireless network interfaces (WNICs). A large fraction of communication is infrastructure based, so the wireless access points and hotspot servers have become more ubiquitous. Battery lifetime is still a critical issue, with WNICs typically consuming a large fraction of the overall power budget in a mobile device. In this work we present a new technique for managing power consumption and QoS in diverse wireless environments using Hotspot servers. We introduce a resource manager module at both Hotspot server and the client. Resource manager schedules communication bursts between it and each client. The schedulers decide what WNIC to employ for communication, when to communicate data and how to minimize power dissipation while maintaining an acceptable QoS based on the application needs. We present two new scheduling policies derived from well known earliest deadline first (EDF) and rate monotonic (RM) [26] algorithms. The resource manager and the schedulers have been implemented in the HP's Hotspot server [14]. Our measurement and simulation results show a significant improvement in power dissipation and QoS of Bluetooth and 802. 1 lb for applications such as MP3, MPEG4, WWW, and email.