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Over the past twenty-ve years, unemployment has been growing continuously in West Germany. In this study one of the reasons for growing unemployment is analysed: unemployment of older people in their transition from employment to retirement. First, the different possibilities of transitions into retirement are explained within the framework of social security regulations. Taking this legal framework as a starting point, early retirement passages are then modelled with the IAB unemployment subsample. It will be shown that -due to the long duration of these unemployment episodes -early retirement contributed considerably to the rise of total unemployment. Early retirement patterns will be broken down by economic sub-sectors and establishment size. It turns out that this kind of unemployment originates primarily from large establishments in manufacturing and extractive industries. Multivariate analysis presented at the end of the paper also includes personal characteristics such as gender or skills and income levels. In the light of these ndings, the 'push' and 'pull' hypothesis common in explaining early exit are discussed. Drawing on the statistical ndings as well as on the institutional analysis, it is argued that both kinds of factors are at work.

bargaining. In addition, employers' associations refused to ask the state for an extension of collective agreements. Finally, since the EU's eastward expansion, other industries, such as meat processing, have increasingly become destination industries for posted workers. The service and the food and restaurant unions were the first to start campaigning for a statutory minimum wage.The question of whether the expansion of low-wage work in Germany should be regarded as a problem or a welcome development is hotly debated in both political and academic circles. The advocates of further expansion of low-wage work are calling for a significant reduction of transfer payments in order to increase incentives for accepting low-paid work (Sachverständigenrat, 2004). However, political attitudes towards a minimum wage are shifting. According to recent polls, a large majority of Germans are in favour of a minimum wage. These polls persuaded the Social Democratic party (SPD), which promoted the growth of low-wage work through the Hartz laws in 2004, to come out in support of a minimum wage. Minimum wages became a contentious issue in the coalition negotiations between the SPD and the Christian Democratic parties (CDU/CSU). Due to pressure from the SPD, the resulting "grand coalition" agreed to reform the MiA and to include more industries in the law on the posting of workers (AEntG).This chapter begins with data analysis investigating the evolution of lowpaid employment, employment structure, income mobility and poverty. To enable us to draw up a detailed picture of those affected and of the dynamic and knock-on effects of the low-wage sector, we have evaluated data from the socio-economic panel (SOEP) and employee panel of the Federal Employment Service (Bundesagentur für Arbeit -BA). The SOEP offers the option of also including part-time workers and mini-jobs (currently available data up to 2006). 1 Owing to a lack of data on working hours, the BA employee panel allows only the wages of full-time employees to be evaluated. However, given its considerably larger number of cases, it makes it possible to analyse the trend in individual industries in a more differentiated fashion. Section 6.2 considers the change in income distribution overall. In Section 6.3, we draw up a differentiated picture of the low-wage sector: how it has evolved and who is particularly affected. In Section 6.4, we focus on the way in which low and average wages have evolved in accordance with enterprise characteristics. In Section 6.5, the income mobility of low-paid workers is analysed, while the link between poverty and low pay is the subject of Section 6.6. In 186The minimum wage revisited in the enlarged EU 1. Employees in mini-jobs fall below the earnings limit at which social insurance contributions come into play (less than €400 per month since 2003). They are not covered by the general obligation to pay social insurance contributions. Employers pay a flat-rate contribution of 30 per cent (13 per cent for health insurance, 15 per cent for old-ag...

Standard-Nutzungsbedingungen:Die Dokumente auf EconStor dürfen zu eigenen wissenschaftlichen Zwecken und zum Privatgebrauch gespeichert und kopiert werden.Sie dürfen die Dokumente nicht für öffentliche oder kommerzielle Zwecke vervielfältigen, öffentlich ausstellen, öffentlich zugänglich machen, vertreiben oder anderweitig nutzen.Sofern die Verfasser die Dokumente unter Open-Content-Lizenzen (insbesondere CC-Lizenzen) zur Verfügung gestellt haben sollten, gelten abweichend von diesen Nutzungsbedingungen die in der dort genannten Lizenz gewährten Nutzungsrechte. www.econstor.eu Zusammenfassung Die Gebäudereinigungsbranche ist mit einem hohen Anteil der Personalkosten und einer großen Vergleichbarkeit und Standardisierung der angebotenen Dienstleistungen äußerst wettbewerbsintensiv. Die statistischen Voraussetzungen für eine Evaluation der Mindestlohnregelungen waren nicht ideal, was vor allem mit einem sehr hohen Anteil von Teilzeitbeschäftigung und Minijobs zusammenhängt. Die Evaluation basiert auf einer repräsen-tativen Unternehmensbefragung, einer Betriebsrätebefra-gung, Fallstudien und mikroökonometrischen Berechnungen auf der Basis der SIAB. Es hat sich gezeigt, dass der untere Mindestlohn für die Unterhaltsreinigung die "going rate" in der Branche ist, die ansonsten vermutlich deutlich absinken würde. Der Arbeitnehmerschutz hat sich durch eine stärkere Einhaltung der Mindestlöhne infolge der effektiven Kontrollen des Zolls, die auch als wichtiger Wettbewerbsfaktor angesehen werden, verbessert. Terms of use: Documents in Effects of minimum wages in the commercial cleaning sectorAbstract The commercial cleaning industry is characterized by a high proportion of labour costs and a pronounced comparability and standardization of services. The statistical preconditions for the evaluation have not been ideal which is mainly due to the high proportion of part-time work and mini-jobs. The evaluation is based on a representative company survey, a survey of works counsellors, company case studies and microeconometric calculations based on SIAB. The lower minimum pay rate for indoor cleaning tends to be the "going rate" which otherwise might be undercut. Employees' protection has been improved by the more effective controls by the customs which are also assessed as very important for competition. Employment and working time volume have been increasing between 2000 and 2008 and the market share of the commercial cleaning industry has grown compared to cleaners in other industries. The microeconometric analysis reveals all in all no negative impact on employment and suggests that the inclusion of the industry into the Law on the Posting of Workers (AEntG) might have led to shifts from mini-jobs to employment covered by social security.

Zusammenfassung Arbeitsmarktreformen der jüngeren Zeit hatten länderübergrei-fend eine höhere Erwerbsbeteiligung Alleinerziehender zum Ziel, um ihre überpro-portional hohen Armuts-und Sozialhilfequoten zu verringern. Die hier präsentierten Befunde belegen jedoch eine partielle Entkoppelung von Erwerbsarbeit und materieller Sicherheit: Zwar stieg die Erwerbsbeteiligung Alleinerziehender im Fünfjah-reszeitraum vor Beginn der Finanz-und Wirtschaftskrise an, zugleich stagnierte ihr Armutsrisiko jedoch oder nahm sogar zu. Dies gilt über verschiedene Typen von Geschlechterregimen hinweg, wie der Ländervergleich zwischen Deutschland, Frankreich, Schweden und dem Vereinigten Königreich zeigt. Der potenziell armutsverringernde Effekt einer zunehmenden Erwerbsbeteiligung wird offenbar durch gegenläufige Trends verringert. Sinkende Markteinkommen und sinkende Sozialtransfers eignen sich mit unterschiedlicher Gewichtung in den vier Ländern zur Erklärung. Darüber hinaus kommen mit der Modernisierung der Geschlechterrollen und dem Verlust ihrer Avantgarde-Rolle als erwerbstätige Mütter die latenten materiellen Risiken des Alleinerziehens voll zum Tragen. Darauf sind Länder mit sehr unterschiedlichen institutionellen und ökonomischen Kontexten noch nicht hinreichend eingestellt.Schlüsselwörter Alleinerziehende · Aktivierung · Working poor · Erwerbsbeteiligung von Müttern · Geschlechterregime 344 K. Jaehrling et al. AbstractLabour market reforms implemented in recent years in a number of countries have aimed to increase participation rates among single parents in order to reduce the disproportionately high poverty rate and share of benefit recipients among them. However, our quantitative analyses based on EU-LFS and EU-SILC indicate that paid work has to some extent become dissociated from material security. Although participation rates among single parents rose in the five years before the financial and economic crisis, their risk of being in poverty remained the same or actually increased. This finding holds true for different types of welfare state, as the comparison between Germany, France, Sweden and the UK shows. The potential poverty-reducing effects of increasing labour market participation are clearly being weakened by certain counter-trends. Possible explanations, which apply to varying extents in the four countries, are declining market wages and reductions in social transfers. Moreover, previously latent material risks of lone parenting unfold with the modernisation of gender roles and the erosion of lone mothers 'avant-garde' role as working parents. This is a common challenge across countries which has so far not been addressed sufficiently by social and labour market policies.

Seit Mitte der neunziger Jahre ist die Niedriglohnbeschäftigung in Deutschland stark gestiegen. Im europäischen Vergleich hat Deutschland mittlerweile einen der höchsten Werte unter den kontinentaleuropäischen Ländern. Gleichzeitig ist die Aufstiegsmobilität aus dem Niedriglohnbereich in besser bezahlte Tätigkeiten zurückgegangen. Besonders für gering Qualifizierte, Frauen und Ältere sind die Chancen, ihr Einkommen zu verbessern, erheblich schlechter als für hoch qualifizierte Beschäftigte.Das Ausmaß der Niedriglohnbeschäftigung und die Aufstiegschancen aus dem Niedriglohnbereich sind politisch hoch relevant, da gerade das Argument, dass Niedriglohnjobs gute Möglichkeiten bieten würden, in besser bezahlte Tätigkeiten aufzusteigen, häufig genutzt wird, um eine Ausweitung von Niedriglöhnen zu rechtfertigen.Die im folgenden Artikel vorgestellte Untersuchung basiert auf Datensätzen der Bundesagentur für Arbeit und dem Sozio-ökonomischen Panel. Neben der Entwicklung der Niedriglohnbeschäftigung und der Aufstiegsmobilität in den letzten 20 Jahren werden die Aufstiegsperspektiven aus dem Niedriglohnbereich nach Beschäftigtenmerkmalen differenziert untersucht.

This article aims to take stock of the various manifestations of on-call work in Germany. It is shown that formal on-call work is, by international standards, relatively strictly regulated in Germany, not least as the result of a 2019 reform of the law. Similar to other countries, however, other informal variants are used that lie outside the scope of the re-regulation or ‘normalisation’ of formal on-call work. Differentiated analyses based on survey data show that both formal and informal variants of on-call work are associated with disproportionately high levels of short part-time work, low pay and consequently with considerable risks of poverty. As a consequence, the ongoing debate on the erosion of the status of employee should not be too narrowly restricted to self-employed workers in the gig economy (Deliveroo, Uber) but should be extended to include the ‘grey zones’ in the area of dependent employment.

Since the mid-1990s income inequality has increased more sharply in Germany than in many other European countries. However, the question of whether this has led to an erosion of the middle class is hotly debated. In fact, it does not necessarily follow that increasing inequality in individual incomes inevitably leads to inequalities in the household disposable income that is a decisive factor in determining class affiliation. Household members can compensate for losses of income by increased economic activity, for example, and the welfare state can also make good such losses.In what follows, we will analyse how the development of the German middle class is related to changes in the world of work. Between 1992 and 2013 the size of the German middle class declined from 83% to 78% of the total population. In the same period we saw a strong expansion of the low-wage sector. Growing female employment was focused on Mini-jobs with short weekly working hours and low hourly wages. We will analyse how these labour market trends affect the primary and secondary distribution of household income. This will first show how jobs with different hourly wages and working hours are combined in the household resulting in the primary distribution of income. And secondly we will show how state redistribution by taxes and social security contributions on the one hand and transfers on the other hand changes the primary distribution Gerhard Bosch -Institut Arbeit und Qualifikation ,Universität Duisburg-Essen | gerhard.bosch@uni-due.de Thorsten Kalina -Institut Arbeit und Qualifikation ,Universität Duisburg-Essen | thorsten.kalina@uni-due.de