Objectives To assess the measurement invariance quality of a short-item employee work assessment questionnaire across key subgroups of pharmaceutical executives. Methods A cross-sectional study with data collected using a nine-item structured questionnaire randomly administered to 406 pharmaceutical executives in Nigeria. Structural equation modelling using Analysis of Moment Structures (AMOS) version 24, and criteria for invariance were absolute change in goodness-of-fit criteria and chi-square test at P < 0.05. Key findings Results showed gender [men (n = 293, 72%), women (n = 113, 28%)], [pharmacist (n = 117, 28.8%, non-pharmacist (n = 289, 71.2%)], company type [indigenous (n = 249, 61%), multinational (n = 157, 39%)], and industry experience [low experience; ≤10 years (n = 363, 89%), high experience: ≥10 years (n = 43, 11%)]. Model-fit and construct validity of the instrument were satisfactory. Configural, metric, scalar, and residual invariance of the instrument were confirmed across gender, professional training, and experience levels. Only configural and metric invariance were attained for company type. Conclusions The developed questionnaire is adequate for assessing pharmacy workforce perception across multiple demographic groups. Invariance testing and reporting are beneficial in social, administrative, and behavioural pharmacy research.
In developing countries, there is arguably little or no research study done to evaluate the outcome of path analysis of Job satisfaction (JS), Job motivation (JM), Perceived organizational support (POS), and Turnover Intentions (TIs) on sales professionals in the pharmaceutical marketing industry, using structural equation modeling techniques (SEM). The objective of the study was to evaluate the direct and indirect effects of the relationship between Job satisfaction (JS), Job motivation (JM), Perceived organization support (POS), and Turnover intentions (TI). TI was operationalized as an Intention-to-leave firm for another in the same Industry (TWI) and Intention-to-leave industry entirely (TWO).
Aim/purpose – The study was based on social exchange theory and addressed the effects of firm-based organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) on normative and con- tinuance organizational commitment (OC). Multigroup behavioral differences among pharmaceutical executives were also evaluated. Design/methodology/approach – This study employed an empirical, explanatory cross- -sectional study with online questionnaires administered to four hundred and one randomly selected pharmaceutical executives in Nigeria. The covariance-based structural equation modeling technique was used for testing hypotheses. Firm-based OCB domains – conscientiousness, sportsmanship, and civic virtue were regressed on OC domains of continuance, and normative. The hypothesized effects of firm-based OCB on the domains of OC were examined using Analysis of Moment Structures (AMOS). Findings – The structural model had acceptable fit measures. Conscientiousness and sportsmanship behaviors were negatively related to normative OC while civic virtue had a positive significant relationship with normative OC. Multigroup comparisons based on gender, profession, and type of organization revealed significant effects on the relations between civic virtue and normative OC. Employees highly vested with enhancing and representing their company’s image, tend to be more obligated to continue and remain with the organization. The more self-directed, and less-complaining employees are, the lower the tendency to remain with the organization. The nuances of group differences among employees had an impact on examined relationships. Research implications – Human resource managers should adequately stimulate and motivate employees to be ambassadors of the organization. This is achievable by instil- ling a sense of ownership and loyalty in employees. Further implications are discussed. Originality/value/contribution – The study disentangled the relations between OCB and OC in the context of pharmaceutical executives in a developing country. The study highlighted the essence of group-specific differences in behavioral evaluation among pharmaceutical executives. Keywords: organizational citizenship behavior, normative commitment, continuance com- mitment, pharmaceutical industry, structural equation modeling, social exchange theory. JEL Classification: C38, D21, D23.
Community pharmacists, as healthcare providers, operate within local and global business environments. Therefore, they are not immune from the effects of the business environment on practice performance. However, limited empirical research is available to explore these effects. The study proposes an empirical model to investigate the influence of economic and technological factors on the performance domains of community pharmacists in southwestern Nigeria. A cross-sectional study with self-administered questionnaires to 661 randomly selected community pharmacists. Performance measures were operationalized based on theory into 3 domains: operational, economic, and social performance domains. Study hypotheses were tested by applying factor-based structural equation modeling (SEM) using WarpPLS software. Results showed acceptable internal reliability of constructs and fit of the model to the data. Technology, compared to economic factors, had a significant influence on operational performance (β=0.242, p=0.001 vs. β=0.067, p=0.055). At the same time, economic factors had a higher influence on economic performance (β=0.070, p=0.036 vs. β=0.032, p=0.203). Both predictors affected social performance, with economic factors having a relatively stronger impact compared to technological factors. (β=0.095, p=0.007 vs. β=0.069, p=0.037). Community pharmacists should continue to strengthen economic value for their customers while incorporating relevant technology to improve practice outcomes. Macroeconomic policy by governments to enable community pharmacy practice is also recommended. The study recommends that community pharmacists emphasize the relevance of regular performance assessments to identify areas for improvement. This study adds substantial theoretical and methodological value to the existing literature by using SEM to explore the impact of business environmental factors on disaggregated performance measures of community pharmacists. Keywords: Community pharmacists, Economic, Measures, Nigeria, Performance, Technology, Structural equation modeling.
Pharmaceutical sales representatives are a pivotal workforce in the healthcare system. Due to the global impact of COVID-19, the impact on the psyche and morale of the pharmaceutical sales workforce has to be examined. The primary objective of the study was to assess the possible impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the psyche and productivity of the pharmaceutical sales workforce in Nigeria. A questionnaire-guided cross-sectional survey was used to collect data from pharmaceutical sales personnel across the six geopolitical zones in Nigeria using purposive sampling. The final sample was 225. Statistical analysis was done using SPSS 25. Descriptive statistics such as mean, standard deviation were used for demographic data. Cluster analysis was used to identify key demographic predictors of importance. X2 test was used to test the association between the sociodemographic characteristics of respondents and work-attributes. The difference of means was determined with a t-test. Highest and lowest-ranked work-attributes were information provider (3.62±1.36), and involvement in COVID screening activities (1.80±1.20). Average daily work hours before and during COVID-19 lockdown (2.16±0.04 vs. 1.88±0.11, p<0.05)) were affected. Average sales were significantly affected (3.15±0.48 vs. 1.35±0.36, p<0.0001). Psychological states of Anxiety and Increased burden have a medium to high impact on the psyche of respondents. The study revealed an association of both extremes of pessimism and optimism with regards to Frustration state of mind. Study suggests an overall negative impact on pharmaceutical sales representatives’ psyche and productivity. Attention to sales workforce welfare is required to safeguard medicine supply.
Objectives: More pharmacy practice research has to be done to investigate the impact of Perceived organizational support (POS), demographics, and Job motivation (JM) on Job satisfaction (JS) of pharmaceutical sales executives (PSE) in the pharmaceutical marketing industry. The objectives of the study were to evaluate the predictive effects of POS, JM, and demographic attributes of PSE on JS. Secondly, explore the relationship between POS indicators and demographic variables of respondents. Methods: A crosssectional online survey of 406 pharmaceutical sales executives, conducted between April to May 2021 in Nigeria using a random sampling method. Results: Correlations existed between Age vs. Training and Career prospects: Marital status vs. Incentive-scheme and Career prospects: Type of pharmaceutical company vs. Work-tools availability, Training, Incentive-scheme, marketing support, and career prospects: Years of experience vs. Training, Incentive, reward system, and career prospects: Annual salary vs. worktools, Incentives, and marketing support. The study model met acceptable fit criteria. Overall satisfaction score was 1.54±0.499, and motivation score was 1.37±0.484 respectively. The mean satisfaction rating score was ambivalent on the 5-point scale with 2.73 (SD=0.90), and the Motivation score was 2.49 (SD=0.95) indicative of low JM. Aggregate POS (1.88±0.734) and respondents' perception of the pharmaceutical marketing industry was poor (2.10±0.83). The regression model showed that Marital status had a positive predictive relationship (β=0.606) compared to Motivation (β=-2.614), Reward system (β=-0.866), and Work tools availability (β=-0.365), were predictors of JS at p<0.05. Conclusion: Study outcomes provided valuable human resource information to support policy reforms in the pharmaceutical marketing industry.
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