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Lignin is an important commercially produced polymeric material. It is used extensively in both industrial and agricultural activities. Recently, it has drawn much attention from the scientific community. It is abundantly present in nature and has significant application in the production of biodegradable materials. Its wide usage includes drug delivery, polymers and several forms of emerging lignin nanoparticles. The synthesis of lignin nanoparticles is carried out in a controlled manner. The traditional manufacturing techniques are costly and often toxic and hazardous to the environment. This review article highlights simple, safe, climate-friendly and ecological approaches to the synthesis of lignin nanoparticles. The changeable, complex structure and recalcitrant nature of lignin makes it challenging to degrade. Researchers have discovered a small number of microorganisms that have developed enzymatic and non-enzymatic metabolic pathways to use lignin as a carbon source. These microbes show promising potential for the biodegradation of lignin. The degradation pathways of these microbes are also described, which makes the study of biological synthesis much easier. However, surface modification of lignin nanoparticles is something that is yet to be explored. This review elucidates the recent advances in the biodegradation of lignin in the ecological system. It includes the current approaches, methods for modification, new applications and research for the synthesis of lignin and lignin nanoparticles. Additionally, the intricacy of lignin’s structure, along with its chemical nature, is well-described. This article will help increase the understanding of the utilization of lignin as an economical and alternative-resource material. It will also aid in the minimization of solid waste arising from lignin.

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Ribonucleic acid interference (RNAi) is a potential alternative therapeutic approach to knock down the overexpression of genes in several disorders especially cancers with underlying genetic dysfunctions. For silencing of specific genes involved in cell cycle, small/short interfering ribonucleic acids (siRNAs) are being used clinically. The siRNA-based RNAi is more efficient, specific and safe antisense technology than other RNAi approaches. The route of siRNA administration for siRNA therapy depends on the targeted site. However, certain hurdles like poor stability of siRNA, saturation, off-target effect, immunogenicity, anatomical barriers and non-targeted delivery restrict the successful siRNA therapy. Thus, advancement of an effective, secure, and long-term delivery system is prerequisite to the medical utilization of siRNA. Polycationic nanocarriers mediated targeted delivery system is an ideal system to remove these hurdles and to increase the blood retention time and rate of intracellular permeability. In this chapter, we will mainly discuss the different biocompatible, biodegradable, non-toxic (organic, inorganic and hybrid) nanocarriers that encapsulate and shield the siRNA from the different harsh environment and provides the increased systemic siRNA delivery.

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Background: In the last few years, the use of modified Carbon Nanomaterials (CNMs) for theranostics (therapeutic and diagnosis) applications is a new and rapidly growing area in pharmacy and medical fields. Owing to this, their specific physicochemical behaviors like high stability, drug loading, surface area to volume ratio, with low toxicity and immunogenicity are mainly responsible to be considered those as smart nanomaterials. Objective: This review describes the different dimensions of carbon-based nanocarriers including 0-D fullerene, 1-D Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs), and 2-D graphene and Graphene Oxide (GO) and their surface modification with different biocompatible and biodegradable molecules via covalent or non-covalent functionalization. The major focus of this article is on the different theranostics applications of CNMs like targeted drugs and genes delivery, photodynamic therapy, photothermal therapy, bioimaging, and biosensing. The therapeutic efficacy of drugs could be enhanced by delivering them directly on a specific site using different targeted ligands such as vitamins, peptide, carbohydrates, proteins, etc. A section of the article also discusses the toxicity of the CNMs to the living systems. Conclusion: In brief, this review article discusses the numerous theranostics applications and toxicities of CNMs.

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