Mitochondrial mutants of the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii that are inactivated in the cytochrome pathway of respiration have previously been isolated. Despite the fact that the alternative oxidase pathway is still active the mutants have lost the capacity to grow heterotrophically (dark + acetate) and display reduced growth under mixotrophic conditions (light + acetate). In crosses between wild-type and mutant cells, the meiotic progeny only inherit the character transmitted by the mt- parent, which indicates that the mutations are located in the 15.8 kb linear mitochondrial genome. Two new mutants (dum-18 and dum-19) have now been isolated and characterized genetically, biochemically and at the molecular level. In addition, two previously isolated mutants (dum-11 and dum-15) were characterized in more detail. dum-11 contains two types of deleted mitochondrial DNA molecules: 15.1 kb monomers lacking the subterminal part of the genome, downstream of codon 147 of the apocytochrome b (COB) gene, and dimers resulting from head-to-head fusion of asymmetrically deleted monomers (15.1 and 9.5 kb DNA molecules, respectively). As in the wild type, the three other mutants contain only 15.8 kb mitochondrial DNA molecules. dum-15 is mutated at codon 140 of the COB gene, a serine (TCT) being changed into a tyrosine (TAC). dum-18 and dum-19 both inactivate cytochrome c oxidase, as a result of frameshift mutations (addition or deletion of 1 bp) at codons 145 and 152, respectively, of the COX1 gene encoding subunit I of cytochrome c oxidase. In a total of ten respiratory deficient mitochondrial mutants characterized thus far, only mutations located in COB or COX1 have been isolated.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

In higher plants, various developmental and environmental conditions enhance expression of the alternative oxidase (AOX), whereas its induction in fungi is mainly dependent on cytochrome pathway restriction and triggering by reactive oxygen species. The AOX of the unicellular green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii is encoded by two different genes, the Aox1 gene being much more transcribed than Aox2. To analyze the transcriptional regulation of Aox1, we have fused its 1.4-kb promoter region to the promoterless arylsulfatase (Ars) reporter gene and measured ARS enzyme activities in transformants carrying the chimeric construct. We show that the Aox1 promoter is generally unresponsive to a number of known AOX inducers, including stress agents, respiratory inhibitors, and metabolites, possibly because the AOX activity is constitutively high in the alga. In contrast, the Aox1 expression is strongly dependent on the nitrogen source, being down-regulated by ammonium and stimulated by nitrate. Inactivation of nitrate reductase leads to a further increase of expression. The stimulation by nitrate also occurs at the AOX protein and respiratory levels. A deletion analysis of the Aox1 promoter region demonstrates that a short upstream segment (Ϫ253 to ϩ59 with respect to the transcription start site) is sufficient to ensure gene expression and regulation, but that distal elements are required for full gene expression. The observed pattern of AOX regulation points to the possible interaction between chloroplast and mitochondria in relation to a potential increase of photogenerated ATP when nitrate is used as a nitrogen source.Besides the cyanide-sensitive cytochrome pathway, mitochondria from higher plants, some protists, and many fungi possess an alternative pathway that is resistant to cyanide but sensitive to salicylhydroxamic acid and n-propyl gallate. Cyanide-resistant respiration is mediated by a single non-phosphorylating enzyme, the alternative oxidase (AOX), which bypasses proton-translocating complexes III and IV of the cytochrome pathway to directly transfer electrons from reduced ubiquinone to molecular oxygen. In the thermogenic spadix of Sauromatum guttatum and other Araceae, the free energy of the alternative pathway is involved in heat production during anthesis (Moore and Siedow, 1991). Although its precise function in other tissues is still not fully understood, the AOX is often considered to be a regulatory enzyme balancing carbon metabolism and electron transport. According to the energy overflow hypothesis (Lambers, 1982), shunting electrons to the alternative pathway would allow continued operation of glycolysis and tricarboxylic acid cycle when the cytochrome pathway is impaired or restricted by a high adenylate charge (for review, see Wagner and Krab, 1995;Vanlerberghe and McIntosh, 1997). The alternative pathway is also thought to prevent over-reduction of respiratory chain components that might otherwise result in the generation of harmful reactive oxygen species (for review, see Moller, 2001).Enhanc...

In the present work, we have isolated by RNA interference and characterized at the functional and the proteomic levels a Chlamydomonas reinhardtii strain devoid of the mitochondrial alternative oxidase 1 (AOX1). The AOX1-deficient strain displays a remarkable doubling of the cell volume and biomass without alteration of the generation time or change in total respiratory rate, with a significantly higher ROS production. To identify the molecular adaptation underlying these observations, we have carried out a comparative study of both the mitochondrial and the cellular soluble proteomes. Our results indicate a strong up-regulation of the ROS scavenging systems and important quantitative modifications of proteins involved in the primary metabolism, namely an increase of enzymes involved in anabolic pathways and a concomitant general down-regulation of enzymes of the main catabolic pathways.

Two cDNA clones (AOX1 and AOX2) and the corresponding genes encoding the alternative oxidases (AOXs) from Chlamydomonas reinhardtii were isolated and sequenced. The cDNAs, AOX1 and AOX2, contained open reading frames (ORFs) encoding putative proteins of 360 amino acids and 347 amino acids, respectively. For each of the ORFs, a potential mitochondrial-targeting sequence was found in the 5'-end regions. In comparison to AOX enzymes from plants and fungi, the predicted amino acid sequences of the ORFs showed their highest degree of identity with proteins from Aspergillus niger (38.1% and 37.2%) and Ajellomyces capsulatus (37% and 34.9%). Several residues supposed either to be Fe ligands or to be involved in the ubiquinol-binding site were fully conserved in both C. reinhardtii putative AOX proteins. In contrast, a cysteine residue conserved in the sequences of all higher plants and probably involved in the regulation of the enzyme activity was missing both from the AOX1 and AOX2 amino acid sequences and from protein sequences from various other microorganisms. The transcriptional expression of the AOX1 and AOX2 genes in wild-type cells and in mutant cells deficient in mitochondrial complex III activity was also investigated.

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RÉSUMÉCe travail a pour objectif d'établir les conditions optimales de régénération de plantes fertiles à partir de suspensions cellulaires embryogènes en vue de leur utilisation pour une transformation génétique par bombardements de protoplastes. Ce travail réalisé sur des variétés de Pennisetum glaucum de Côte d'Ivoire a permis de mettre en évidence les facteurs qui influent (taille et âge des cals, milieu de conditonnement, et âge de la suspension cellulaire) sur la régénération de plantes fertiles. Il ressort de cette étude que la taille des cals et les milieux de conditionnement utilisés n'ont aucun effet sur le taux de régénération de plantes fertiles. Cependant, l'âge de la suspension cellulaire obtenue à partir de cals embryogènes et l'âge du cal initiateur de la suspension cellulaire influent sur le taux de régénération. Le taux de plantes normales régénérées est élevé durant les deux premiers mois de culture de la suspension cellulaire initiée à partir des cals de 2-3 mois (60 à 70%). Les plantes régénérées présentent les mêmes caractéristiques de croissance végétative (taille, longueur de la chandelle, nombre de barres, longueur de l'épi) que les plantes témoins. Pour le rendement, les plantes régénérées portent moins de grains (412) que les plantes témoins (715).

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