The individualism and collectivism constructs are theoretically analyzed and linked to certain hypothesized consequences (social behaviors, health indices). Study 1 explores the meaning of these constructs within culture (in the United States), identifying the individual-differences variable, idiocentrism versus ailocentrism, that corresponds to the constructs. Factor analyses of responses to items related to the constructs suggest that U.S. individualism is reflected in (a) Self-Reliance With Competition, (b) Low Concern for Ingroups, and (c) Distance from Ingroups. A higher order factor analysis suggests that Subordination of Ingroup Goals to Personal Goals may be the most important aspect of U.S. individualism. Study 2 probes the limits of the constructs with data from two collectivist samples (Japan and Puerto Rico) and one individualist sample (Illinois) of students. It is shown that responses depend on who the other is (i.e., which ingroup), the context, and the kind of social behavior (e.g., feel similar to other, attentive to the views of others). Study 3 replicates previous work in Puerto Rico indicating that allocentric persons perceive that they receive more and a better quality of social support than do idiocentric persons, while the latter report being more lonely than the former. Several themes, such as self-reliance, achievement, and competition, have different meanings in the two kinds of societies, and detailed examinations of the factor patterns show how such themes vary across cultures. This article contains two parts. Part 1 presents a theoretical analysis of the constructs of individualism (e.g., de Tocqueville, 1946) and collectivism, including a discussion of the probable antecedents and consequents of the emphases on these values in different cultures. Part 2 presents three studies. The first study, based on U.S. data, provides attitude items that can be used to measure the individual-differences dimension ailocentrism versus idiocentrism. Ailocentrism versus idiocentrism is a within-culture variable that corresponds to collectivism versus individualism at the cultural level. The second study tests the limits of the constructs, with data from Japan, Puerto Rico, and Illinois. The third study replicates previously obtained (in Illinois) findings with data from Puerto Rico that allocentric persons report receiving more social support and a better quality of social support, and idiocentric persons report higher levels of loneliness.

No abstract

Two studies were conducted to examine the relationship between the dimension of individualism versus collectivism and psychological needs. In the first study Chinese subjects in Hong Kong completed an Individualism-Collectivism Scale and the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule. Collectivism was found to be positively related to the needs for affiliation, succorance, abasement, and nurturance and negatively related to the needs for autonomy, deference, and heterosexuality. In the second study, American subjects in Illinois responded to several scales from the Personality Research Form, (PRF) and a collection of items constructed to measure collectivism. A factor labeled Self-reiliance Versus Interdependence held significant correlations with the autonomy need. It was negatively associated with needs for abasement, affiliation, nurturance, succorance, and desirability, as measured by the PRF. The similarity of correlational patterns observed among Hong Kong Chinese subjects and Illinois subjects suggested that there was some generality in the findings.

The acculturation of subjects from culture A to culture B can take three forms: the more acculturated subjects may make responses that are similar to the responses made by subjects from culture B (accommodation). they may go beyond B s position (overshooting). and they may move in the opposite direction from the position of the members of culture B (ethnic affirmation). The paper presents three sets of data concerning elements of subjective culture (role perceptions, behavioral intentions, and stereotypes), with subjects speaking Spanish and residing in the U.S. who are at three levels of acculturation. The data show that role perceptions and behavioral intentions are characterized mostly by accommodation. while stereotypes are characterized mostly by ethnic affirmation. A theoretical explanation of this pattern of results is that elements of subjective culture are linked to overt behavior both directly and indirectly. As members of culture A acculturate to culture B, their behavior becomes similar to the behavior of members of culture B. Those elements of subjective culture that are directly linked with this behavior change; however, those elements that are not directly linked do not change or even show ethnic affirmation. Testing of this theoretical formulation will require additional research.A major problem in cross-cultural studies is that when a cultural difference between two or more groups has been established, it is still not certain that the difference is due to the contrast between the two groups on cultural variables, rather than on other variables that are confounded with culture. In other words, we start with the situation that we have measured some psychological attribute and found that members of Culture A are sufficiently similar to each other and

No abstract

No abstract

No abstract

No abstract