This study examined an instrument measuring the salience of an individual's identification with exercise as an integral part of the concept of self. The 9-item Exercise Identity Scale was given to 51 college students. Test-retest reliability (1 wk.) was. 93 and Cronbach alpha. 94. Assessment of the relationship between exercise identity scores and other variables related to participation in exercise documents evidence for validity. A measure of exercise identity may help identify persons least likely and most likely to maintain an exercise program and so may assist in the development of effective intervention strategies.

This study examined an instrument measuring the salience of an individual's identification with exercise as an integral part of the concept of self. The 9-item Exercise Identity Scale was given to 51 college students. Test-retest reliability (1 wk.) was .93 and Cronbach alpha. 94. Assessment of the relationship between exercise identity scores and other variables related to participation in exercise documents evidence for validity. A measure of exercise identity may help identify persons least likely and most likely to maintain an exercise program and so may assist in the development of effective intervention strategies.

Attendance at college sporting events generates billions of dollars annually for athletics departments at the college level in the United States. Based on Identity Theory and prior research, we developed and tested two models that were successful in predicting actual attendance, attendance intentions (conative loyalty), and support for the team across time. Respondents (N = 165; 60% female, 95% Caucasian) filled out three surveys across the year. In Model A (RMSEA = .066, x 2 /df = 50.02/29 = 1.73), prior season attendance, number of games intending to attend, and preseason team-fan role identity (Time 1) explained 63% of self-reported attendance behavior (Time 2). Those variables and postseason role identity (Time 2) explained 48.5% of attendance intentions (Time 3; Model A) and 43% of supporting the team in the future (Time 3; Model B, RMSEA = .060, x 2 /df = 46.16/29 = 1.59). Sports marketers need to take into account both the impact of role identity as a fan of the team and attendance intentions, not just prior attendance behavior, when predicting future attendance behavior and support for the team. n the United States, attendance for the NCAA (National Collegiate Athletic Association) football teams is fairly high across the Big 5 conferences, but not impressive in other divisions. Across all NCAA divisions, it seems to have plateaued at around 50 million fans per year (Trail & James, 2015). In the 2015 season, The Ohio State University averaged over 107,000 attendees per game (NCAA, 2016) and generated over $30 million (U.S.) from ticket sales for the season, showing how I

Those who attempt to increase cultural diversity in social organizations need to consider perceptions of access or opportunity for prestigious and visible positions. This research investigated career option viability for the positions of college athletic director and football coach through the examination of social characteristics of persons holding these positions at a sample of NCAA Division I-A institutions. Eighty-eight of the 105 institutions contacted supplied a copy of their 1990 football media guide. From these media guides, data were compiled for athletic directors, head football coaches, and full time assistant football coaches. Results clearly show that blacks were underrepresented at the athletic director, head coach, coordinator, and assistant coach positions. Additional results examining centrality ofposition played and position coached suggest that racial discrimination is institutionalized. Consequently, the pattern is likely to continue in the absence Of meaningful interventions. These data indicate that career opportunity is restricted for blacks by institutionalized discrimination in intercollegiate sport. niversity administrators, like administrators in many other institutions in American society, are attempting to increase the cultural diversity at all levels of the organization. Many university presidents have implemented programs aimed at expanding cultural diversity among faculty and staff. Other programs are initiated in an attempt to improve the cultural diversity among students. The Chronicle of Higher Education recently reported that blacks comprised only six percent of the full time undergraduate students at NCAA Division I institutions (Lederman, 1992). This figure remains about one-half of the proportion of blacks in the total United States population.Among these educational institutions, the area which probably is the most visible and receives the greatest amount of media coverage is intercollegiate athletics.Interestingly, although blacks are underrepresented as undergraduates at these institutions, they comprise nearly a quarter of all scholarships athletes and nearly 43% of the football players (Lederman, 1992). Because of this overrepresentation of blacks as athletes in intercollegiate sport, it may seem reasonable to argue and indeed, many have, that here is a place in higher education where equal opportunity does exist. However, a more critical analysis would argue that this view of intercollegiate sport as a meritocracy based on skill and achievement actually obscures relations of dominance and subordination structured along lines of race (Birrell, 1989).Little is known about the racial composition of intercollegiate athletic departments. Certainly two of the most visible and prestigious university positions are the

It has been determined that advertising tends to mitigate a negative trial effect among low-product-involvement consumers when it precedes the negative trial but has no impact on beliefs and attitudes when the trial is positive. This case study investigated the effect of advertisements on sport consumers’ satisfaction and conative loyalty in spectating sport. Specifically, the authors examined spectators who were novice attendees at an intercollegiate men’s basketball game (N = 206). Two groups (home team winning, home team losing) were investigated to determine whether advertising mitigated the negative product–trial effect (losing). The results indicated that although advertising did not mitigate losing specific to immediate satisfaction with the game outcome or decision to attend, it did seem to mitigate losing on conative loyalty.

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Two forms of handling were used as reinforcement in a T-maze for 34 albino rats. In a twelve-day experiment, those receiving gentling learned to avoid reinforcement while those receiving fondling learned to obtain it. In a six-day follow-up, rats were given either a fondling hand or a rat companion as reinforcement.The proportion of reinforced trials and running times were similar for both objects. Rats learned a task to obtain interaction with a rat or responsive surrogate. Werner and Latan6 (1974) have argued that responsive interaction is an important basis of social attraction in albino rats. They demonstrated that rats were attracted to a responsive fondling human hand, spending upwards of 60% of a five minute test period in contact with this social surrogate. The kind and amount of interaction was comparable to rats behavior with rat companions. This finding conflicts with a series of studies in which gentling--a form of handling similar to fondling--was found to be aversive to rats. Animals learned left-right and black-white discriminations, as well as reversal problems in order to avoid gentling (Candland et al., 1960;Candland et al., 1962). Although the two are similar, there are enough differences between gentling and fondling that it is possible one is aversive and the other attractive.The purpose of the present experiment is, in Part 1, to resolve this conflict by using these two methods of reinforcement in Candland et al's (1960) paradigm, and, in Part 2, to replicate Werner and Latane in a different apparatus.Werner and Latane found it was necessary to familiarize the rats with fondling before a hand was attractive. Consequently, preexperimental treatment was manipulated, with one third of the rats fondled, one third gentled, and one third not treated prior to testing. Part 1. Method. Thirty-four albino rats were tested in a leftright discrimination problem for 12 days. A 3x2 factorial design described their pretest experience (Prefondled/Pregentled/Nonhandled) and their reinforcement during testing (Fondling/Gentling).Subjects and Preexperimental Treatment. Thirty-six naive male albino rats (Sprague-Dawley) were 30 to 50 days of age when received from the university vivarium and randomly assigned to treatment conditions 21 days prior to testing. All were housed alone in standard single cages, food and water ad lib. Prior to testing two animals died, leaving 34 subjects.During the three week preexperimental period, designated animals were prehandled for 5 minutes per day. In fondling, the Experimenter pulled the cage out slightly and reached into the cage to stroke, scratch, and fondle the rat. Rats were free to move around the cage away from and toward the hand. In gentling, the experimenter held a rat in one hand and stroked in a cephalocaudal direction at about 50 strokes per minute. Between rats, hands were washed in a vinegar and water solution to keep odors from previously handled rats from exciting others.