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The advent of cloud computing promises highly available, efficient, and flexible computing services for applications such as web search, email, voice over IP, and web search alerts. Our experience at Google is that realizing the promises of cloud computing requires an extremely scalable backend consisting of many large compute clusters that are shared by application tasks with diverse service level requirements for throughput, latency, and jitter. These considerations impact (a) capacity planning to determine which machine resources must grow and by how much and (b) task scheduling to achieve high machine utilization and to meet service level objectives.Both capacity planning and task scheduling require a good understanding of task resource consumption (e.g., CPU and memory usage). This in turn demands simple and accurate approaches to workload classification-determining how to form groups of tasks (workloads) with similar resource demands. One approach to workload classification is to make each task its own workload. However, this approach scales poorly since tens of thousands of tasks execute daily on Google compute clusters. Another approach to workload classification is to view all tasks as belonging to a single workload. Unfortunately, applying such a coarse-grain workload classification to the diversity of tasks running on Google compute clusters results in large variances in predicted resource consumptions.This paper describes an approach to workload classification and its application to the Google Cloud Backend, arguably the largest cloud backend on the planet. Our methodology for workload classification consists of: (1) identifying the workload dimensions; (2) constructing task classes using an off-the-shelf algorithm such as k-means; (3) determining the break points for qualitative coordinates within the workload dimensions; and (4) merging adjacent task classes to reduce the number of workloads. We use the foregoing, especially the notion of qualitative coordinates, to glean several insights about the Google Cloud Backend: (a) the duration of task executions is bimodal in that tasks either have a short duration or a long duration; (b) most tasks have short durations; and (c) most resources are consumed by a few tasks with long duration that have large demands for CPU and memory.

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Performance and power consumption of an on-chip interconnect that forms the backbone of Chip Multiprocessors (CMPs), are directly influenced by the underlying network topology. Both these parameters can also be optimized by application induced communication locality since applications mapped on a large CMP system will benefit from clustered communication, where data is placed in cache banks closer to the cores accessing it. Thus, in this paper, we design a hierarchical network topology that takes advantage of such communication locality. The two-tier hierarchical topology consists of local networks that are connected via a global network. The local network is a simple, high-bandwidth, low-power shared bus fabric, and the global network is a low-radix mesh. The key insight that enables the hybrid topology is that most communication in CMP applications can be limited to the local network, and thus, using a fast, low-power bus to handle local communication will improve both packet latency and power-efficiency. The proposed hierarchical topology provides up to 63% reduction in energy-delayproduct over mesh, 47% over flattened butterfly, and 33% with respect to concentrated mesh across network sizes with uniform and non-uniform synthetic traffic. For real parallel workloads, the hybrid topology provides up to 14% improvement in system performance (IPC) and in terms of energy-delay-product, improvements of 70%, 22%, 30% over the mesh, flattened butterfly, and concentrated mesh, respectively, for a 32-way CMP.Although the hybrid topology scales in a power-and bandwidthefficient manner with network size, while keeping the average packet latency low in comparison to high radix topologies, it has lower throughput due to high concentration. To improve the throughput of the hybrid topology, we propose a novel router microarchitecture, called XShare, which exploits data value locality and bimodal traffic characteristics of CMP applications to transfer multiple small flits over a single channel. This helps in enhancing the network throughput by 35%, providing a latency reduction of 14% with synthetic traffic, and improving IPC on an average 4% with application workloads.

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DARPA's Ubiquitous High-Performance Computing (UHPC) program asked researchers to develop computing systems capable of achieving energy efficiencies of 50 GOPS/Watt, assuming 2018-era fabrication technologies. This paper describes Runnemede, the research architecture developed by the Intel-led UHPC team. Runnemede is being developed through a co-design process that considers the hardware, the runtime/OS, and applications simultaneously. Near-threshold voltage operation, fine-grained power and clock management, and separate execution units for runtime and application code are used to reduce energy consumption. Memory energy is minimized through application-managed on-chip memory and direct physical addressing. A hierarchical on-chip network reduces communication energy, and a codelet-based execution model supports extreme parallelism and fine-grained tasks.We present an initial evaluation of Runnemede that shows the design process for our on-chip network, demonstrates 2-4x improvements in memory energy from explicit control of on-chip memory, and illustrates the impact of hardware-software co-design on the energy consumption of a synthetic aperture radar algorithm on our architecture.