The aim of this article is to present the up-to-date diagnostic tools of orthorexia and markers of its prevalence on the basis of the available literature. The authors searched PubMedCentral (PMC) and Google Scholar with the search entry of “orthorexia”, “orthorexia nervosa”, and “orthorexicbehaviours”. We describe the tools of evaluation of orthorexicbehaviour (i.e., orthorexia self-test—BOT, the ORTO-15 questionnaire, Eating Habits Questionnaire—EHQ, Düsseldorf Orthorexia Scale—DOS, Teruel Orthorexia Scale—TOS, Barcelona Orthorexia Scale—BOS, and Orthorexia Nervosa Inventory—ONI), and offer a review of the studies on orthorexia nervosa. We conclude that there are no reliable data regarding the prevalence of orthorexia nervosa. The available studies point to significant differences in the prevalence depending on the value of cut-off points and tools used. The prevalence varies across countries and across populations, ranging from 6.9% in the Italian population to 88.7% in the group of Brazilian students of dieting. Thus, it indicates that some groups seem to be susceptible to the risk of ON more than others. It is a challenge to determine the prevalence of orthorexia, and any obtained results should be treated with caution. Consequently, we claim that the use of the ORTO-15 questionnaire to diagnose orthorexia is questionable due to a high percentage of falsely positive results.

Hope is of great importance for patients diagnosed with cancer, especially those that are terminally ill. The diagnosis often puts an end to the realization of personal, social, and professional goals. The aim of this study was to characterize the hope of hospitalized patients diagnosed with cancer in the terminal phase of the disease. The research tool used in the study was Block’s hope test (NCN-36; NCN- Nadzieja Chorych Nowotworowych—Hope of Cancer Patients), designed for patients with life-threatening diseases. The results showed that the patients were characterized by a moderate level of global hope. The highest levels of hope were noted in the spiritual-religious area and the lowest levels of hope concerned curing the disease. Patients exhibited varied levels of hope and varied internal structures of hope. They presented four different types of hope: optimistic, moderate, religious, and weak. Optimistic hope was found most frequently in patients diagnosed with a terminal phase of cancer, while weak hope was represented by the smallest group of these patients.

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Introduction. The objective of the presented research is to characterize hope in the situational dimension, i.e., health, in the patients with cancer in the terminal phase of the disease, being treated in hospices and palliative care centers. Hope is very important for all the patients, especially for patients with cancer in various phases of the disease. Giving up on oncologic therapy and causal treatment is often associated with a transition into palliative care. When death and a loss of values become a threat, the individual has got hope to rely on. Material and Methods. The study relies on the Test to Measure Hope in the Health Context (NCN-36) by B.L. Block. 246 patients in the terminal phase of cancer participated in the study. Results. The internal structure of hope of recovery in the patients’ group was varied. The patients showed low levels of hope of recovery since they do not believe in the effectiveness of treatment. They were also not convinced of the effectiveness of modifications in dieting, lifestyle, or the use of nonconventional medicine. They trusted the doctor in charge and were moderately satisfied with the therapy in use. The intensity of hope of recovery was on the low level in the patients in the terminal phase of cancer. Age, sex, place of living, and marital status had a significant influence on the level of hope of recovery. Variables such as living on one’s own or living with one’s family, socioeconomic status, education, or profession did not affect the level of hope of recovery. Conclusions. The presented results allowed as to conclude that the assessment of hope in terminally ill cancer patients can be considered as one of the important tools enabling the personalization and the improvement of palliative care.

Wprowadzenie. Nazwa orthorexia nervosa pochodzi z języka greckiego od słów ortho-prawidłowy, właściwy oraz orexis-apetyt, pragnienie. Pojęcie to zostało wprowadzone w 1997 r. przez amerykańskiego lekarza Stevena Bratmana, który zdefiniował ortoreksję jako patologiczną obsesję na punkcie spożywania zdrowej żywności. Cel pracy. Ocena postaw względem żywności i zdrowia, a także zachowań żywieniowych w zakresie różnorodności spożywanych artykułów spożywczych oraz stosowania ograniczeń w spożywaniu jedzenia wśród osób, u których rozpoznano orthorexia nervosa. Materiał i metody. W badaniu wzięło udział 155 osób, w tym 136 kobiet (87,74%) i 19 mężczyzn (12,26%). W pracy wykorzystano standaryzowane narzędzia badawcze: kwestionariusz ORTO-15, Test Postaw wobec Jedzenia (EAT-26), Kwestionariusz do badania poglądów i zwyczajów żywieniowych (Kom-PAN), Skalę Postaw Względem Zdrowia i Smaku (HTAS) oraz Skalę Troski o Zdrowie (HCS). Wyniki. Ryzyko wystąpienia ortoreksji stwierdzono u 85,16% ankietowanych. W przypadku polskiej wersji kwestionariusza ORTO-15 ortoreksję rozpoznano u 78,06% badanych. Dieta stosowana przez respondentów charakteryzuje się małym (53,72%) lub umiarkowanym (46,28%) natężeniem cech prozdrowotnych i jednocześnie małym (99,17%) natężeniem cech niekorzystnie wpływających na zdrowie. Osoby przejawiające skłonności ortorektyczne charakteryzują się dobrym (50,41%) lub dostatecznym (45,45%) poziomem wiedzy na temat żywności i żywienia. Wnioski. Duże rozbieżności w rozpowszechnieniu ortoreksji prowadzą do podawania w wątpliwość trafność narzędzia ORTO-15 lub sposób analizy wyników. Przeprowadzone badanie nie pozwala jednoznacznie stwierdzić, czy w badanej grupie występuje ryzyko zagrożenia ortoreksją w tak dużym stopniu, jak wskazuje na to kwestionariusz ORTO-15. Zachowania i zwyczaje żywieniowe oraz poglądy na temat żywności i żywienia zaobserwowane w badanej grupie zdają się mieścić w "normalnym" zakresie i nie mogą być utożsamiane z ortoreksją.

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The aim of this work was to assess orthorectic behaviors among young people and to evaluate their attitudes towards caring for their health. The study was conducted in 2019 on a group of 538 respondents aged 16–35. After analysis, 65 questionnaires were eliminated from further research, and the assessment of orthorectic disorders was performed using a method based on the modified ORTO-15 questionnaire on a group of 473 respondents. A large percentage of them exhibited an increased risk of orthorectic behaviors (32.8), which was higher among women than men (34.7% and 28.2%, respectively). People with higher risks of orthorectic disorders significantly more often reduced their consumption of foods high in fats and sugars. Attitudes of people with orthorectic disorders towards health care proved neutral, with a tendency to be positive. Nutritional behaviors observed in the studied group show some irregularities, which indicates the need for preventive and educational measures aimed at increasing awareness of the role of proper nutrition among young people. The obtained results may be the basis for further research on ON symptoms. One of the major areas of future research would be to create a reliable diagnostic tool which would allow for distinguishing between orthorexia and overdiagnosis.