Stereotypes of Groups, Group Members, and Individuals in Categories: A Differential Analysis

Social identity theory: A conceptual and empirical critique from the perspective of a behavioural interaction model

“…Intergroup competition is then said to flow from social comparison processes whereby one seeks superiority for oneself by aggrandizing one's own group or derogating the other group. We have argued elsewhere that social comparison processes are certainly present in the minimal intergroup situation (Horwitz and Rabbie, 1989). However, the first crucial assumption in the chain or arguments, namely that subjects'categorization into, say a blue or a green group is internalized by them to define their selves has not been adequately tested to our knowledge.…”

Anticipated outgroup evaluations and intergroup bias

“…In the first place, being marked off for special treatment from outsiders constitutes a form of 'shared fate' amongst ingroup members that may serve to heighten member's perceptions of themselves as a distinct entity. A heightened sense of membership may, in turn, impact the normative orientation to grant more weight to the desires of ingroup as opposed to outgroup members (Horwitz and Rabbie, 1989), giving rise to elevated intergroup bias. It is also possible that in the face of a presumably unfair outgroup, ingroup members exhibit bias to counteract the otherwise disadvantaged position they would find themselves in had the anticipated bias from an outgroup gone unchecked.…”

Reactions to Outgroup Authorities' Decisions: The Role of Expected Bias, Procedural Fairness and Outcome Favorability

“…Several studies have found that people generally expect outgroup members to demonstrate bias in favor of their own group members in evaluation (Vivian & Berkowitz, 1992) as well as in overt behavior (e.g. Duck & Fielding, 1999;Harinck & Ellemers, 2006;Horwitz & Rabbie, 1989;Kramer et al, 1995;Moy & Ng, 1996).…”

“…Our theoretical approach is primarily based on research on intergroup perception (e.g. Duck & Fielding, 1999;Horwitz & Rabbie, 1989;Kramer, Shah, & Woerner, 1995;Moy & Ng, 1996). Based on this literature we will argue that expectations about outgroup members play an important role in explaining reactions to outgroup authorities' decisions (cf.…”