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Abstract:Objective: To examine different hormonal responses to heavy endurance training and overtraining in female athletes.Design: Submaximal and maximal treadmill tests, selfreport mood measures, and stress hormone analyses were repeated at baseline, after 4 weeks and at the end of 6 to 9 weeks of experimental intensive training and after 4 to 6 weeks of recovery. Subjects: Fifteen healthy female endurance athletes increased their intensive training volume by 130% and base training volume by 100% (ETG, n = 9) or served as controls (CG, n = 6).Main Outcome Measures: Maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max)' mood dynamics, blood catecholamines, cortisol and testosterone at rest and after submaximal and maximal exercise, and nocturnal urine catecholamines.Results: Five females from the ETG demonstrated an overtraining state (OA subgroup) at the end of the training period. Their VO2m~ decreased (mean :!: SEM) from 53.0 :t 2.2 ml.kg-1.min-(range. 46.8-59.2) to 50.2:!: 2.3 ml.kg-1.min-1 (range, 43.8-56.6) (p < 0.01). Maximal treadmill performance expressed as oxygen demand decreased (mean :t SEM) from 56.0:t 1.6 ml.kg-l.min-l (range. 51.5-60.5) to 52.2:r. 1.1 mI.kg-l.min-1 (range, 49.1-55.3) (p < 0.01). Maximal heart rate also decreased (mean :t SEM) from 190 :t I bpm (range, 185-197) to 186 :t 2 bpm (range, 184-193) (p < 0.05), and the athletes experienced mood disturbances. Plasma adrenaline levels at maximal and noradrenaline at submaximal work rate decreased during the last 2 to 5 training weeks (p < 0.05), and serum cortisol levels at maximal work rate decreased during the first 4 training weeks (p < 0.05) in the ETG. Plasma adrenaline at maximal work rate decreased during the f1r8t 4 training weeks (p < 0.05) in the OA subgroup. There were no changes in the ca. Individual hormonal response types to heavy training and overtraining were found.Conclusions: Hormone responses to exercise load are superior in indicating heavy training-induced stress when compared with resting hOrmone levels. These responses indicated decreased sympathoadrenal and/or adrenocortical activity (or exhaustion of the adrenal gland or the central nervous system). Individual hormonal profiles are needed to follow up training effects. Marked individual differences were found in trainingand overtraining-induced hormonal changes.

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According to the individual zones of optimal functioning (IZOF) model, an athlete's performance is successful when his or her pre-competition anxiety is within or near the individually optimal zone. When anxiety falls outside the optimal zone, performance deteriorates. The model also suggests that skilled athletes are aware of, and are able to accurately recall and anticipate, their pre-competition anxiety. A meta-analysis of 19 studies from 1978 to 1997 (146 effect sizes based on 6387 participants) was conducted to examine the validity of the assumptions regarding the in-out of the zone notion and the accuracy of recalls and anticipatory measures of anxiety. The findings provide fairly good empirical support for the IZOF anxiety model, with an overall effect size (d) for the in-out of the zone notion of d = +0.44 (41 effect sizes, n = 3175). In other words, the performance of athletes who were within their individually optimal zones were almost one-half a standard deviation unit better than that of athletes who were outside their zones. Furthermore, both effect sizes (r(w)) for accuracy of precompetition anxiety measures, recall (r(w) = +0.71, 24 effect sizes, n = 369) and anticipatory (r(w) = +0.69, 81 effect sizes, n = 2843), exceeded the 'large effect' suggested for correlations by Cohen. The implications for future research extending the IZOF model to a wider range of positive and negative emotions are discussed.