Does the individual zones of optimal functioning model discriminate between successful and less successful athletes? A meta-analysis

Abstract

According to the individual zones of optimal functioning (IZOF) model, an athlete's performance is successful when his or her pre-competition anxiety is within or near the individually optimal zone. When anxiety falls outside the optimal zone, performance deteriorates. The model also suggests that skilled athletes are aware of, and are able to accurately recall and anticipate, their pre-competition anxiety. A meta-analysis of 19 studies from 1978 to 1997 (146 effect sizes based on 6387 participants) was conducted to examine the validity of the assumptions regarding the in-out of the zone notion and the accuracy of recalls and anticipatory measures of anxiety. The findings provide fairly good empirical support for the IZOF anxiety model, with an overall effect size (d) for the in-out of the zone notion of d = +0.44 (41 effect sizes, n = 3175). In other words, the performance of athletes who were within their individually optimal zones were almost one-half a standard deviation unit better than that of athletes who were outside their zones. Furthermore, both effect sizes (r(w)) for accuracy of precompetition anxiety measures, recall (r(w) = +0.71, 24 effect sizes, n = 369) and anticipatory (r(w) = +0.69, 81 effect sizes, n = 2843), exceeded the 'large effect' suggested for correlations by Cohen. The implications for future research extending the IZOF model to a wider range of positive and negative emotions are discussed.

Understanding emotionally relevant situations in primary care dental practice: 1. Clinical situations and emotional responses

“…the dentist's absolute level of clinical skill, their perceived level of skill and their perception of the patient's ability to cope with the situation. This is reflected by the current concept of the 'Individual Zone of Optimal Functioning,' which is emerging from the current sports science literature 31 which suggests that some individuals function better at higher levels of stress than others. The importance of appraisal in determining whether clinical situations were stressors or challenges suggests that cognitive reappraisal would be a valuable skill with regards to reducing stress and building resilience.…”

Competing Under Pressure: State Anxiety, Sports Performance and Assessment

“…Research testing the predictions of the IZOF model, by use of both the STAI and the CSAI-2, has generally been supportive of the notion that athletes who are in their individually established anxiety zone perform more successfully than their out-of-thezone counterparts. A meta-analysis, in which 19 studies that had applied the IZOF model to predict state anxiety were included, showed that athletes who were in their zone performed about one-half of a standard deviation better than athletes who were out of their zone (Jokela & Hanin, 1999). Athletes' ability to both recall and predict their anxiety levels on self-report scales was also supported.…”

If I want to perform better, then how should I feel?

“…These lead to reducing effort and disorganizing decreased skill effects. There has been a great deal of support for the IZOF model (Jokela & Hanin, 1999;Hanin, 2010;Robazza, Bortoli, & Hanin, 2006;Robazza, Pellizarri, & Hanin, 2004;Ruiz & Hanin, 2004). Evidence from IZOF studies can be used to further challenge the notion that pleasant emotions such as happiness and vigor always help performance and unpleasant emotions such as anxiety and anger harm performance.…”

“…Evidence demonstrates that athletes experience intense emotions before, during and after competition (Hanin, 2003;. Metaanalytic evidence indicates emotions are predictive of performance (Beedie, Terry, & Lane, 2000;Craft, Magyar, Becker, & Feltz, 2003;Hanton, Neil, &Mellalieu, 2008;Jokela, & Hanin, 1999). Qualitative data suggest the ability to regulate emotions is an important psychological skill (Connaughton, Hanton,& Jones, 2002;Harmison, 2011), a perspective shared by many practitioners (Gould & Maynard, 2009;Harmison, 2011).…”