Bioresource‐based green synthesis of nanoparticles has gained significant interest as an emerging technology to reduce the toxicity of nanoparticles commonly associated with conventional chemical synthesis approaches. Studies on green synthesis of metal nanoparticles have been carried out with various biological materials including from bacteria, fungi, and plant extracts. Plant extracts in particular have been extensively used for the synthesis of metal and metal oxide nanoparticles, and this is due to the presence of essential phytochemicals in plant extracts especially from the leaves. Leaf extract contains various types of phytochemicals such as terpenoids, flavonoids, ketones, aldehydes, amides, and carboxylic acids, which play a major role in formulating and enhancing the bioactivity of the nanoparticles. This article discusses flavonoids as an essential phytochemical for the formation of metal and metal oxide nanoparticles and enhancement of their bio‐functionality and compatibility. In addition, bioprocess developments for the synthesis of metal as well as metal oxide nanoparticles from various biological materials are discussed.

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In the present study, natural deep eutectic solvent composed of choline chloride and ascorbic acid (CHCL/AA NADES) was formulated for enhancing the solubility and antioxidant properties of antioxidant extracts from fruit wastes of Mangifera pajang. The solubilities of Mangifera pajang's antioxidant extracts in water and CHCL/AA NADES at different water contents (0 -50 wt%) were investigated. It was observed that the antioxidant extracts were most soluble in the CHCL/AA NADES with 10 wt% of water, and the concentration of antioxidant was found to be approximately 15% and 4% as compared to water and pure CHCL/AA NADES, respectively. The positive effect of water on NADES can be related to the reduced viscosity of NADES, where the viscosity decreased up to 74% upon addition of water. Aside from that, all the tested CHCL/AA NADES enhanced the antioxidant capacity of antioxidant extracts by 1.3-14.64% compared to the antioxidant extracts in water. This finding highlights the role of CHCL/AA NADES as an antioxidant capacity enhancer.Noteworthy, the antioxidant extracts solubilized in the CHCL/AA NADES system formed a nano-scale cluster structure, as depicted by the TEM image, suggesting that the CHCL/AA NADES could potentially use in nanoformulation that provides protection to the antioxidant extracts.

Graphical abstract Numerous viral infections are common among humans, and some can lead to death. Even though conventional antiviral agents are beneficial in eliminating viral infections, they may lead to side effects or physiological toxicity. Silver nanoparticles and nanocomposites have been demonstrated to possess inhibitory properties against several pathogenic microbes, including archaea, bacteria, fungi, algae, and viruses. Its pronounced antimicrobial activity against various microbe-mediated diseases potentiates its use in combating viral infections. Notably, the appropriated selection of the synthesis method to fabricate silver nanoparticles is a major factor for consideration as it directly impacts antiviral efficacy, level of toxicity, scalability, and environmental sustainability. Thus, this article presents and discusses various synthesis approaches to produce silver nanoparticles and nanocomposites, providing technological insights into selecting approaches to generate antiviral silver-based nanoparticles. The antiviral mechanism of various formulations of silver nanoparticles and the evaluation of its propensity to combat specific viral infections as a potential antiviral agent are also discussed.

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Recent developments in nanotechnology has increased the market value of nanoproducts in various industries. This has increased concerns associated with potential toxicity of nanoproducts to humans and the environments. Even though, green and biosynthesized nanoparticles are considered to be less toxic than chemically synthesized nanoparticles, they still possess some level of toxicity. Conventional toxicity assessments via human cells, live animals such as rat, frog or rabbit have several drawbacks including ethical issue and challenges involving the maintenance and development of cell cultures. Zebrafish (Danio rerio) is a transparent vertebrate fish that can reproduce rapidly. Its larvae develop in 5 days up to 3-5 cm long. It also possesses about 69% similar genetic profile, molecular mechanism, cell development and organ physiology as humans. Hence, it has the potential to be utilized as an alternative to humans or live animal models for initial drug screening and toxicity tests. European Union, USFDA and ICH have approved the use of zebrafish for toxicological evaluation of pharmaceutical products including nanomedicines. The article presents for the potential of zebrafish in preclinical evaluation of the toxicity of nanomaterials. It also discusses other potential applications, including medical imaging and environmental toxicity.

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