The ever-increasing demands for clean and sustainable energy sources combined with rapid advances in bio-integrated portable or implantable electronic devices have stimulated intensive research activities in enzymatic (bio)fuel cells (EFCs). The use of renewable biocatalysts, the utilization of abundant green, safe, and high energy density fuels, together with the capability of working at modest and biocompatible conditions, make EFCs promising as next generation alternative power sources. However, the main challenges (low energy density, relatively low power density, poor operational stability and limited voltage output) hinder future applications of EFCs. This review aims at exploring the underlying mechanism of EFCs and providing possible practical strategies, methodologies and insights to tackle of these issues. Firstly, this review summarizes approaches in achieving high energy densities in EFCs, particularly, employing enzyme cascades for the deep/complete oxidation of fuels. Secondly, strategies for increasing power densities in EFCs, including increasing enzyme activities, facilitating electron transfers, employing nanomaterials, and designing more efficient enzyme-electrode interfaces, are described. The potential of EFCs/(super)capacitor combination is discussed. Thirdly, the review evaluates a range of strategies for improving the stability of EFCs, including the use of different enzyme immobilization approaches, tuning enzyme properties, designing protective matrixes, and using microbial surface displaying enzymes. Fourthly, approaches for the improvement of the cell voltage of EFCs are highlighted. Finally, future developments and a prospective on EFCs are envisioned.
The fabrication of highly durable, flexible, all‐solid‐state supercapacitors (ASCs) remains challenging because of the unavoidable mechanical stress that such devices are subjected to in wearable applications. Natural/artificial fiber textiles are regarded as prospective materials for flexible ASCs due to their outstanding physicochemical properties. Here, a high‐performance ASC is designed by employing graphene‐encapsulated polyester fiber loaded with polyaniline as the flexible electrodes and bacterial cellulose (BC) nanofiber‐reinforced polyacrylamide as the hydrogel electrolyte. The ASC combines the textile electrode capable of arbitrary deformation with the BC‐reinforced hydrogel with high ionic conductivity (125 mS cm−1), high tensile strength (330 kPa), and superelasticity (stretchability up to ≈1300%), giving rise to a device with high stability/compatibility between the electrodes and electrolyte that is compliant with flexible electronics. As a result, this ASC delivers high areal capacitance of 564 mF cm−2, excellent rate capability, good energy/power densities, and more importantly, superior mechanical properties without significant capacitance degradation after repeated bending, confirming the functionality of the ASC under mechanical deformation. This work demonstrates an effective design for a sufficiently tough energy storage device, which shows great potential in truly wearable applications.
BackgroundFlowthrough pretreatment of biomass is a critical
step in lignin valorization via conversion of lignin derivatives to high-value
products, a function vital to the economic efficiency of biorefinery plants.
Comprehensive understanding of lignin behaviors and solubilization chemistry in
aqueous pretreatment such as water-only and dilute acid flowthrough pretreatment
is of fundamental importance to achieve the goal of providing flexible platform
for lignin utilization.ResultsIn this study, the effects of flowthrough
pretreatment conditions on lignin separation from poplar wood were reported as
well as the characteristics of three sub-sets of lignin produced from the
pretreatment, including residual lignin in pretreated solid residues (ReL),
recovered insoluble lignin in pretreated liquid (RISL), and recovered soluble
lignin in pretreatment liquid (RSL). Both the water-only and 0.05 % (w/w) sulfuric
acid pretreatments were performed at temperatures from 160 to 270 °C on poplar
wood in a flowthrough reactor system for 2–10 min. Results showed that water-only
flowthrough pretreatment primarily removed syringyl (S units). Increased
temperature and/or the addition of sulfuric acid enhanced the removal of guaiacyl
(G units) compared to water-only pretreatments at lower temperatures, resulting in
nearly complete removal of lignin from the biomass. Results also suggested that
more RISL was recovered than ReL and RSL in both dilute acid and water-only
flowthrough pretreatments at elevated temperatures. NMR spectra of the RISL
revealed significant β-O-4 cleavage, α-β deoxygenation to form cinnamyl-like end
groups, and slight β-5 repolymerization in both water-only and dilute acid
flowthrough pretreatments.ConclusionsElevated temperature and/or dilute acid greatly
enhanced lignin removal to almost 100 % by improving G unit removal besides S unit
removal in flowthrough system. Only mild lignin structural modification was caused
by flowthrough pretreatment. A lignin transformation pathway was proposed to
explain the complexity of the lignin structural changes during hot water and
dilute acid flowthrough pretreatment.Graphical abstractLignin transformations in water-only and
dilute acid flowthrough pretreatment at elevated temperaturesElectronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13068-015-0377-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized
users.
BackgroundPretreatment is a vital but expensive step in biomass biofuel production. Overall, most of this past effort has been directed at maximizing sugar yields from hemicellulose and cellulose through trials with different chemicals, operating conditions, and equipment configurations. Flowthrough pretreatment provides a promising platform to dissolution of lignocellulosic biomass to generate high yields of fermentable sugars and lignin for biofuels productions.ResultsDissolution of xylan, lignin, and cellulose from poplar wood were significantly enhanced by water-only and dilute acid (0.05% w/w, H2SO4) flowthrough pretreatment when the temperature was raised from 200°C to 280°C over a range of flow rates 10-62.5 mL/min, resulting in more than 98% solid removal. Up to 40% of original xylan was converted to xylose in the hydrolyzate and the rest xylan was solubilized into xylooligomers with negligible furfural formation. Up to 100% cellulose was removed into hydrolyzate with the highest glucose yield of 60% and low 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF) formation. The maximal recovered insoluble lignin and soluble lignin were 98% and 15% of original lignin, respectively. In addition, enzymatic hydrolysis of pretreated whole slurries was characterized under various enzyme loadings with or without Bovine serum albumin (BSA) treatment. More than 90% glucose yield and 95% xylose yield were obtained from enzymatic hydrolysis of dilute acid pretreated whole slurries with 10 mg protein Ctec 2 with 2 mg Htec2/g glucan + xylan.ConclusionsNearly complete dissolution of whole biomass was realized through water-only and dilute acid flowthrough pretreatment under tested conditions. Temperature was considered as the most significant factor for cellulose degradation. The cellulose removal significantly increased as temperature reached 240°C for water-only and 220°C for dilute acid. Dilute acid pretreatment resulted in higher yields of recovered xylan and cellulose as monomeric sugars in the hydrolyzate than that for water-only pretreatment. Enzymes readily hydrolyzed the degraded cellulose and xylooligomers in pretreatment hydrolysate. Results suggested that kinetics controlled the flowthrough pretreatment of biomass dissolution, which was also affected by flow rate to certain extent.
Large-scale CeO 2 hierarchical architectures composed of well-aligned nanorods were controllably prepared through a simple Na 3 PO 4 assisted hydrothermal reaction without any templates. The products were characterized with X-ray diffraction, field-emission scanning electron microscopy, and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy. It was found that the CeO 2 architectures are in flower-like and vertically aligned nanorod morphologies and composed of numerous fluorite cubic single-crystalline nanorods of 20-40 nm in diameter and lengths of up to several micrometers. The possible mechanism for the nanostructures formation was discussed.
scite is a Brooklyn-based organization that helps researchers better discover and understand research articles through Smart Citations–citations that display the context of the citation and describe whether the article provides supporting or contrasting evidence. scite is used by students and researchers from around the world and is funded in part by the National Science Foundation and the National Institute on Drug Abuse of the National Institutes of Health.