Analysis of the current scientific literature related to the anterolateral ligament and layer-by-layer dissection of the lateral region of 14 cadaveric knees has led to the conclusion that the anterolateral ligament is a thickening of the knee joint capsule located in the third layer of the lateral region of the knee (according to Seebacher) which is not always clearly morphologically differentiated from the remainder of the joint capsule. The anterolateral ligament is unequivocally a part of the joint capsule, which is why any damage to it should be treated in the same way as any other damage to the joint capsule.

The study was conducted on 50 cadavers (32 male and 18 female, aged 15-53 years; mean 34; SD 11) with intact anterior cruciate ligament (ACL), without diagnosed gonarthrosis of the knee joint. The following anatomical parameters of the ACL were measured: the length of anteromedial and posterolateral bundle, the mean length and the width of the ligament, the length and width of tibial insertion, the length and width of femoral insertion. The intercondylar width was measured at the level of popliteal groove. The width of male intercondylar notch (22 mm) was statistically significantly greater (P < 0.05) than the width of female intercondylar notch (18 mm). The width of the male ACL (12 mm) was significantly greater (P < 0.05) than the width of the female ACL (10 mm). The length of the male ACL femoral insertion (14 mm) was statistically significantly greater (P < 0.05) than in the female ACL femoral insertion (12 mm). Accordingly, with greater width of intercondylar notch, men have wider ACL than women. ACL width is in positive correlation with the male intercondylar notch width but it is not in correlation with the female intercondylar notch width. The width of male intercondylar notch correlates with the length and width of ACL femoral insertion. Taking into account the length and width of femoral insertion in examined cadaver knees, double bundle reconstruction would theoretically be possible in 76% of cases.

Early separation of rat pups from their mothers (separatio a matrem) is considered and accepted as an animal model of perinatal stress. Adult rats, separated early postnatally from their mothers, are developing long-lasting changes in the brain and neuroendocrine system, corresponding to the findings observed in schizophrenia and affective disorders. With the aim to investigate the morphological changes in this animal model we exposed 9-day-old (P9) Wistar rats to a 24 h maternal deprivation (MD). At young adult age rats were sacrificed for morphometric analysis and their brains were compared with the control group bred under the same conditions, but without MD. Rats exposed to MD had a 28% smaller cell soma area in the prefrontal cortex (PFCX), 30% in retrosplenial cortex (RSCX), and 15% in motor cortex (MCX) compared to the controls. No difference was observed in the expression of glial fibrillary acidic protein in the neocortex of MD rats compared to the control group. The results of this study demonstrate that stress in early life has a long-term effect on neuronal soma size in cingulate and retrosplenial cortex and is potentially interesting as these structures play an important role in cognition.

Decreased concentrations of testosterone, 17-β estradiol or progesterone may be a risk factor leading to ACL rupture. The concentrations of these hormones do not affect generalised joint laxity. Additional research on a larger group of patients is necessary to further determine the effects of these hormones on generalised joint laxity and ACL ruptures. Young female athletes with lower concentrations of sex hormones are more prone to anterior cruciate ligament rupture which is why they need to reduce their sports activities during the pre-ovulatory phase of the menstrual cycle, when these concentrations are additionally reduced.

The present study revealed a bilateral volume decrease of the caudate nucleus, putamen and hippocampus in PTSD male subjects without therapy. Intensity of volume alterations correlated with Hamilton's depression rating score; regression analysis uncovered correlated changes in the caudate nucleus, putamen and hippocampus, and an inverse correlation with the volume of the lateral ventricle in the PTSD patients.

Objective. In our study we have hypothesized that volume changes of amygdala, hippocampus, and prefrontal cortex are more pronounced in male posttraumatic stress disorder participants. Material and Methods. We have conducted a study of 79 male participants who underwent MRI brain scanning. PTSD diagnosis was confirmed in 49 participants. After MRI was taken all scans were software based volume computed and statistically processed. Results. We found that left amygdala is the most significant parameter for distinction between PTSD participants and participants without PTSD. There were no significant differences in volumes of hippocampi and prefrontal cortices. Roc curve method outlined left amygdala AUC = 0.898 (95% CI = 0.830–0.967) and right amygdala AUC = 0.882 (95% CI = 0.810–0.954) in the group of PTSD participants which makes both variables highly statistically significant. Conclusion. The present investigation revealed significant volume decrease of left amygdala in PTSD patients. Concerning important functions of the amygdala and her neuroanatomical connections with other brain structures, we need to increase number of participants to clarify the correlation between impared amygdala and possible other different brain structures in participants with PTSD.

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