Reducing vulnerability to hazards is a major challenge for pastoral settlements in the dry lands of sub-Saharan Africa. Accumulation of a stock of living animals is a major means of livelihood security that pastoralists use to cope with their constraints, amongst which is high environmental variability. Diversification and long-distance mobility are other means of livelihood security, implying specific family organization. We analysed the combination of these means in ensuring the livelihood security of 508 familial settlements in the rural community of Ferlo, Tessekre (Senegal). At least 40% of the settlements surveyed were small pastoral families, composed of one or two households with small herds (less than 50 cows and 50 sheep). Herds were the major means of livelihood security, but due to lack of a sufficient labour and other assets, the situation of these impoverished families was very precarious. In 28% of the settlements, families combined livestock, crops and non-farming activities as livelihood means. The remaining 32% of the settlements were pastoral settlements supported by large cattle herds and, in many cases, the production of Aïd el Kebir rams (for the major Muslim religious event). Non-farming activities were also present in these settlements with large herds, especially activities in the livestock trade. Diversification can reinforce the function of herds as savings accounts and might also enable the pastoralists to invest in livestock activities. There were three groups of settlements based on the characterization of livelihood security strategies used by pastoral herders. Over time, pastoralists have to utilize several means of security to cope with climatic shocks such as droughts, and familial events such as the death of the familial chief. Family organization (dispersal or grouping), diversification and mobility are important means used to recover after major losses of animals.

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Pastoralisme et recours aux marché s : Cas du Sahel sé né galais (Ferlo) Ré sumé Souvent perçus comme des êtres contemplatifs non économiques, les pasteurs commercialisent néanmoins leurs produits sur les marchés. Leur principal motif de vente est de dégager des recettes permettant de couvrir leurs dépenses courantes et assurer leur sécurité alimentaire. Au terme d'une enquête sur cinq sites du Ferlo entre la saison des pluies 2005 et celle de 2006, une étude détaillée des ventes des pasteurs montre que la présence de forages, souvent considérée comme élément structurant de l'activité pastorale, n'accroît pas systématiquement les ventes de produits pastoraux. Les recettes sont tirées essentiellement de la commercialisation d'animaux de rente (97,9% des ventes globales dont bovins à 40%, petits ruminants à 60%). Les ventes de produits laitiers (lait frais et caillé, beurre) restent marginales (0,50%) et inversement liées au degré d'enclavement des lieux de résidence et d'activité des pasteurs. La diversification observée dans les productions et dans les activités ne se traduit pas dans la commercialisation. Les concepts de pauvreté, de vulnérabilité, de fourniture de services sociaux de base, sont repensés en fonction des caractéristiques du pastoralisme en zones arides (mobilité, éclatement des familles, dispersion de l'habitat). AbstractSahelian herders and the markets: Evidence from the Senegalese Sahel (Ferlo)Often perceived as non-economic contemplative beings, the pastoral populations of Ferlo appeal to the markets in order to sell their products. Their main goal for selling livestock and animal products consists in making money to cover their usual expenses and to ensure their food safety. Based on primary data obtained through investigations in Ferlo encampments throughout a whole year (winter 2005 -winter 2006), a progressive decomposition of their trade incomes shows that the drillings, often considered by policies as an element which structures the pastoral activity, does not systematically improve the money holdings. The released incomes are related to the marketing of ruminants (97.9% of the livestock farming income with the bovines contributing for 40% and small ruminants for 60%). The sale of dairy by-products (fresh and curdled milk, butter) remain marginal (0.50%) and are conversely linked to the degree of enclosure of the herders' places of residence and activity. The diversification of production and the activities is not apparent in the activities of selling. The concepts of poverty, vulnerability and supply of basic social services are reconsidered according to the characteristics of pastoralism in arid regions (mobility, families breakdown, spatial dispersion).

Since the 1970s, the import of tax-free powdered milk has presented an easy solution to the growing demand for dairy products in West Africa. Recent increases in agricultural price volatility have since contributed to a renewed interest in local milk. However, while the present situation raises issues of food security, rural development and trade policy, public policy remains overly focused on the technical dimensions of dairy development. This article presents the dairy landscape of Senegal, a major regional importer of powdered milk, by considering development dynamics in light of the interactions between technical and organizational models and livestock systems, in terms of relationships with resources and environment, knowledge and social organization. Two implications are discussed: the need for effective sectoral policy to tip the balance in favour of local milk; the need to base public action on a better understanding of, and improved support for, livestock systems in all their diversity.

Une réforme en cours au Sénégal privatise la gestion de l’eau des forages pastoraux du Ferlo ; les pasteurs quant à eux gèrent leurs ressources naturelles, eau et pâturages, d’une manière intégrée en accommodant divers principes d’accès. Au-delà des aménagements locaux imposés à la gestion comptable, cet article montre quelles règles dominent et structurent l’organisation sociale de la gestion des infrastructures. Mais cette pluralité de logiques ne se révélerait-elle pas aussi, sous d’autres configurations, dans des sociétés plus marchandes ? Un débat est ouvert sur les limites des modes de tarification théoriques de l’eau, bien économique et social vital. Pour la socio-économie, les pratiques renvoient aux questions d’intérêt personnel, de gestion des ressources, de cohésion sociale.

Le salariat au Ferlo (Sahel sé né galais) Ré suméFace aux chocs et aux incertitudes structurelles au Sahel, l'élevage transhumant a prouvé sa résilience au moyen de stratégies traditionnelles : mobilité et diversification. Aujourd'hui, 25 % des exploitations du Ferlo utilisent de la main-d'oeuvre salariée, réorganisant les tâches habituellement pratiquées à l'échelle familiale. Cet article aborde le salariat comme une stratégie qui répond aux incertitudes internes (disponibilité de maind'oeuvre) et externes (diversification des espèces et rareté des ressources naturelles) et contribue à la gestion continue du troupeau, pilier central de la sécurité alimentaire.Mots clés : changement structurel ; main d'oeuvre ; pastoralisme ; Sahel.Thèmes : économie et développement rural ; productions animales. AbstractPastoral economy facing up to uncertainties. Wage labour in the Ferlo (Senegalese Sahel)In the Sahelian context of shocks and structural uncertainties, transhumant breeding has proved its resilience by relying on traditional strategies such as mobility and diversification. Today, 25 percent of the investigated encampments of Ferlo have used a salaried workforce, renewing the delegation of tasks usually handled at the family scale. This article shows wage-labour as a strategy for copying with uncertainties inside the family (workforce availability) and outside (diversification of species and natural resource scarcity) to ensure continuity of herd management as the central pillar of pastoral food security.

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[eng] Véronique Ancey and Georges Monas — Pastoralism in Senegal: Between modern policy and risk management by livestock raisers.. The question of livestock raising in Senegal well illustrates how difficult it is, at times, for policies to take some realities into account. While such policies promptly mobilise recent concepts (such as food sovereignty) or propose modernist network approaches, discourses still often convey ancient clichés on the atavism and irrationality of pastoralists, along with ignorance of local, economic, agro-ecological and societal realities. It is such biased representations that this article puts to question, by examining the sectoral policy implemented in Senegal in order to secure local production systems