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The aim of this study was to estimate water erosion costs associated with nutrient losses in four different rates of artificial cover. The experiment was carried out from 1987 to 1996 in runoff plots to measure soil losses in Campinas, State of Sao Paulo, in an Ferralsol under natural rainfall. The experimental design was completely randomized, with four treatments (0%, 24%, 40% and 90% artificial cover) and three replications. To estimate costs, P, K + , Ca 2+ and Mg 2+ concentrations in runoff water and soil removed by erosion were summed up, converted into triple superphosphate, potassium chloride and dolomitic limestone and multiplied by their respective market prices. The results indicate that, under the experimental conditions, the greater the percentage of soil cover, the lower the losses of water, soil, organic matter and nutrients. The soil with 90% cover presented reduction of 51.97% in average water losses, 54.44 in soil losses and 54.91% in organic matter losses than the treatment with 0% cover. In bare soil, losses were estimated at 16% P 2 O 5 and 8% KCl in terms of the amount of fertilizers recommended. Costs varied from US$ 107.76 ha -1 year -1 in bare soil (0% cover) to US$ 18.15 ha -1 year -1 in soil with 90% cover. With these values, losses were estimated at 616.5 million tons of soil per year for Brazil, as a result of soil erosion in annual crops, and cost of this process is around US$ 1.3 billion per year.

The aim of this study was a survey of the estimated costs of soil erosion, an issue of fundamental importance in view of the current worldwide discussions on sustainability. A list was drawn up of research papers on erosion (on-site and offsite effects) and their respective costs. The estimates indicate the amount of resources spent in the process of soil degradation, raising a general awareness of the need for soil conservation. On-site costs affect the production units directly, while off-site costs create a burden borne by the environment, economy and society. In addition, estimating the costs of soil erosion should be effective to alert the agricultural producers, society and government for the need for measures that can be implemented to bring erosion under control. Among the various estimates of soil erosion costs between 1933 a 2010, the highest figure was 45.5 billion dollars a year for the European Union. In the United States, the highest figure was 44 billion dollars a year. In Brazil, estimates for the state of Paraná indicate a value of 242 million dollars a year, and for the state of São Paulo, 212 million dollars a year. These figures show, above all, that conservation measures must be implemented if crop and livestock farming production are to be sustainable. Index terms: soil degradation, on-site and off-site losses, sustainable development. RESUMO: OS CUSTOS DA EROSÃO DO SOLO

Soil is an essential natural resource for humans and an important part of the environment. However, soil is often used and managed inappropriately, causing its erosion and degradation, with concomitantly negative social, political and economic impacts. This study aimed to discuss sustainable development; and losses and problems caused by soil erosion, and to suggest a model for assessing erosion costs. The relevance of economic models for costing soil erosion is stressed. Based on an economic theory, it presents a procedure for assessing economic costs of soil erosion, centered on the on-site and off-site costs that are generated. The physical processes of soil erosion are described and their economic effects reviewed, drawing on theoretical and empirical sources. Limited data and information is available on the economic losses resulting from erosion, which hampers assessment and valuation.

Coffee is a crop of significant importance for Brazilian agrobusiness. There is evidence that both the geographic distribution of coffee production, and the varieties of coffee produced, have changed throughout Brazil over the course of time. Furthermore, it appears that these developments are associated with structural changes resulting from reductions in government intervention and its effects on prices in the coffee market, which has established a new dynamic of coffee production in the country. In this context, this study’s objective is to analyze the dynamics of coffee production in Brazil, to identify the Brazilian micro-regions specializing in coffee activities, and to track how the spatial distribution of these micro-regions has varied over time. In so doing, the study aims to identify defining economic characteristics of primary coffee-producing regions. Drawing primarily on data from the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics, the study proceeds by applying Pearson correlation, Granger causality test, location quotient, principal components, and clustering analyses to explore how, during the 1984–2015 period, significant changes occurred in the distribution of regions specializing in coffee production. States such as Paraná and São Paulo, historically important coffee producers, declined in importance, leaving only a few micro-regions in these states specialized in coffee production. During the 2014/15 biennium, 80% of the coffee-specialized micro-regions were concentrated in the states of Minas Gerais, Bahia, Rondônia, and Espírito Santo. Minas Gerais and Bahia primarily produced arabica coffee, while Rondônia specialized in conilon (robusta) coffee. Overall, coffee produced in Brazil improved in quality and value-added over this period.

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The aim of this study was to verify and characterizes the spatial distribution of the microregions specialized in bovine milk production in Paraná State, Brazil, using data from the Municipal Livestock Survey conducted by the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics and the Central Bank of Brazil's National Program to Strengthen Household Agriculture (PRONAF), from 2000 to 2012. Methodologically, we carry out location quotient (LQ), principal component, (PCA) and cluster analyses. Based on the results of the LQ, of the 39 microregions in Paraná State analyzed, 13 are identified as specializing in milk production. In particular, the West and Southwest mesoregions as well as the microregion of Ponta Grossa, in relative terms, account for 58% of the milk produced in the study period. Additionally, based on the PCA, 2 principal components are found to explain 91.5% of the variability in the data, termed technically enhanced production and household production. Finally, by using cluster analysis, five groups are identified among the microregions specializing in milk production, thus indicating marked heterogeneity across the state. This situation requires the expansion of public policies that mitigate regional disparities and provide the state with production gains from milk farming. Key words: Animal production. Bovine milk production. Regional development. Paraná State. Brazil ResumoO objetivo deste estudo foi verificar e caracterizar a distribuição espacial das microrregiões paranaenses especializadas na produção de leite bovino. Para tanto foram utilizados dados da Pesquisa Pecuária Municipal do Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística e do Programa Nacional de Fortalecimento da Agricultura Familiar, do Banco Central do Brasil, referentes aos anos de 2000 a 2012. Foram realizadas análises do quociente locacional (QL), de componentes principais (ACP) e de agrupamentos. A partir dos resultados do QL foram identificadas 13 microrregiões paranaenses especializadas na produção de leite dentre as 39 existentes. Além disso, constatou-se que as mesorregiões oeste e sudoeste e a microrregião de Ponta Grossa, em termos relativos, responderam por 58% do valor bruto da produção do leite no período analisado. Ademais, a partir da ACP, foram identificados 2 componentes principais, suficientes para explicar 91,5% da variabilidade dos dados, sendo nominados de produção tecnificada e produção familiar. Entre as microrregiões especializadas na produção de leite, por meio da análise de agrupamentos, foram identificados 5 grupos, indicando uma acentuada heterogeneidade no estado. A conjuntura que se apresenta requer a formulação de políticas públicas que amenizem as disparidades regionais e que possam proporcionar ao estado ganhos de produção na atividade leiteira. Palavras-chave: Produção animal. Bovinocultura de leite. Desenvolvimento regional. Paraná. Brasil.