PostprintThis is the accepted version of a paper published in Journal of family psychology. This paper has been peer-reviewed but does not include the final publisher proof-corrections or journal pagination.Citation for the original published paper (version of record):Glatz, T., Buchanan, C M. (2015) Over-time associations among parental self-efficacy, promotive parenting practices, and adolescents' externalizing behaviors concerning the associations over time. Theory predicts three types of processes relevant to these associations: a PSE-driven process, a parent behavior-driven process, and a child-driven process.In this study, we tested these processes during early to middle adolescence using reports from 401 mothers and fathers from 305 families, and their adolescents (Mage = 11.5), at three time points. Cross-lagged panel models were used to examine the associations among PSE, promotive parenting practices, and adolescents' externalizing. Results supported a PSE-driven process for mothers within early adolescence. Additionally, evidence for parent behavior-driven and child-driven processes emerged at different times within this developmental period.

Parental self-efficacy (PSE) describes parents' beliefs about being able to handle developmentally specific issues and being able to influence their child in a way that fosters the child's positive development and adjustment (Bandura, 1997). Parents of adolescents have been shown to feel less efficacious than parents of preadolescent children (Ballenski & Cook, 1982), but little is known about the factors behind low levels of PSE among parents of adolescents. This study examined mean-level changes in PSE and predictors of change among parents of adolescents. The sample was derived from a 3-wave longitudinal data set of 398 parents of children starting spanning early (11 or 12 years) to middle (14 or 15 years) adolescence (47% boys). Latent growth curve analysis was performed, and it was hypothesized that theoretically driven predictors reflecting the developing child, as well as the ecological context, would predict the level of PSE. Despite generally high levels of PSE across all time points, parents decreased in PSE during the developmental period. Some predictors were of particular importance for the level and amount of change in PSE, such as physical changes in the child, parents' target-based expectations for risk taking during adolescence, the quality of parent-adolescent communication, and ethnicity. This study adds insight into the development of PSE during the critical transitional period of early and middle adolescence. The findings advance theory of PSE, as it illuminates why some parents' decrease in PSE more than do other parents.

Parents from immigrant backgrounds must deal with normative parenting demands as well as unique challenges associated with acculturation processes. The current study examines the independent and interactive influences of acculturation conflict and cultural parenting self-efficacy (PSE; e.g., parents' confidence in instilling heritage, American, and bicultural values in their children) on perceptions of general parenting competence. Using data from 58 Asian American and 153 Latin American parents of children in grades 6-12, ethnic differences were also explored. Results suggest that lower acculturation conflict is associated with higher perceptions of general parenting competence for both Asian and Latin American parents. Higher cultural PSE is associated with higher perceived general parenting competence for Latino/a parents only. One significant interaction was found, and only for Asian Americans, whereby the negative association between acculturation conflict and perceptions of parenting competence was weaker for those who felt efficacious in transmitting heritage messages. Results are discussed in light of clinical implications and the need for further recognition and study of culturally relevant factors and frameworks among families from immigrant backgrounds.

Hyperactivity, impulsivity, and attention problems (HIA) in children and adolescents are stressful for parents. In this study, we used theories of parents' perceived power and attributions for youths' behaviors to develop a model to understand parents' reactions to their youths' HIA. We followed 706 youths (376 boys and 330 girls, aged 10-12 years at T1) and their parents in a community-based project over 5 years. Measures of youths' HIA, youths' unresponsiveness to correction, parents' feelings of powerlessness, parental monitoring, and parents' negative behaviors toward their youths, were used. HIA in youths predicted increases in parents' perceptions that their youths were unresponsive to correction, which in turn prompted parents to feel more powerless over time. Further, parents' feelings of powerlessness were associated with increases in negative parenting behaviors over time. These results indicate a movement to more negative parenting practices over time as a result of youths' HIA.

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The aim of the study was to test whether the correlation between parental behaviors in the context of adolescent disclosure and adolescents’ self-reported disclosure could be explained by fulfillment of adolescents’ basic psychological needs within their relationships with mothers and fathers. The cross-sectional data were collected from a representative sample of 1,074 seventh graders in Croatia. Parental facilitating behaviors (initiating conversation, support and respectful guidance) and some of the inhibiting behaviors (unavailability, punishment) were shown to be indirectly associated with adolescents’ disclosure through the perceptions of their needs satisfaction. The assumption about the unique contribution of the need-for-relatedness satisfaction in mediating the link between parental behaviors and disclosure was consistently supported, whereas the specific contribution of the need-for-autonomy was apparent only in data about mothers, but not fathers. The results are equivalent for routine disclosure and self-disclosure, suggesting that the processes through which parents facilitate or inhibit both are rather comparable.

Most adolescents have their first encounter with alcohol in early or middle adolescence. Parents' rule setting about alcohol has been shown to be important to delay the onset and reduce the frequency of adolescents' alcohol drinking, but less is known about the potential role of parents' beliefs about their competence in and ability to influence their adolescents' drinking habits (i.e., parental self-efficacy [PSE], Bandura (Psychological Review, 84, 191-215, 1977). In this study, we examined the direction of influence between parents' rule setting and PSE as outcomes of the program "Prevention of Alcohol use in Students" (PAS), a prevention program aiming to reduce underage drinking by targeting parents and adolescents both separately and in a combined intervention. We tested two mediation processes in which the program would (a) have a direct effect on PSE, which in turn would increase parents' rule setting or (b) have a direct effect on parents' rule setting, which in turn would increase PSE. To examine these processes, we used a sample of 2562 parent-adolescent dyads (age 12 at baseline), followed annually over 3 years. The results showed that the combined intervention increased PSE via an increase in parents' rule setting. No significant effect of the intervention on rules about alcohol via PSE was found. This is the first study to test the mediation processes involving PSE and parental rule setting in an experimental context where parenting practices are being actively changed. The results suggest that giving parents concrete advice on how to deal with alcohol drinking in their adolescents and at the same time helping adolescents to develop healthy attitudes about alcohol drinking have a positive influence on parents' self-efficacy.

Prior studies have found that parents' perceptions of control over their lives and their social support may both be important for parenting behaviors. Yet, few studies have examined their unique and interacting influence on parenting behaviors during early adolescence. This longitudinal study of rural parents in two-parent families (N = 636) investigated (a) whether perceived control and social support when their youth were in sixth grade were independently or interactively associated with changes in parenting behaviors (discipline, standard setting) and parent-child warmth and hostility 6 months later and (b) if these linkages differed by parent gender. We also investigated the interactive links between perceived control, social support, and parenting. Specifically, we tested if parents' perceived control moderated the linkages between social support and parenting and if these linkages differed by parent gender. Greater perceived control predicted more increases in parents' consistent discipline and standard setting, whereas greater social support predicted increases in parent-child warmth and decreases in parent-child hostility. Parental perceived control moderated the effect of social support on parental warmth: For mothers only, social support was significantly linked to parent-child warmth only when mothers had low (but not high) perceived self-control. The discussion focuses on reasons why perceived control and social support may have associations with different aspects of parenting and why these might differ for mothers and fathers.