Adipose, skeletal, and hepatic muscle tissues are the main endocrine organs that produce adipokines, myokines, and hepatokines. These biomarkers can be harmful or beneficial to an organism and still perform crosstalk, acting through the endocrine, paracrine, and autocrine pathways. This study aims to review the crosstalk between adipokines, myokines, and hepatokines. Far beyond understanding the actions of each biomarker alone, it is important to underline that these cytokines act together in the body, resulting in a complex network of actions in different tissues, which may have beneficial or non-beneficial effects on the genesis of various physiological disorders and their respective outcomes, such as type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM2), obesity, metabolic syndrome, and cardiovascular diseases (CVD). Overweight individuals secrete more pro-inflammatory adipokines than those of a healthy weight, leading to an impaired immune response and greater susceptibility to inflammatory and infectious diseases. Myostatin is elevated in pro-inflammatory environments, sharing space with pro-inflammatory organokines, such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-1 (IL-1), resistin, and chemerin. Fibroblast growth factor FGF21 acts as a beta-oxidation regulator and decreases lipogenesis in the liver. The crosstalk mentioned above can interfere with homeostatic disorders and can play a role as a potential therapeutic target that can assist in the methods of diagnosing metabolic syndrome and CVD.

Autogenous bone grafts are used to repair bone defects, and the stabilization is needed for bone regeneration. Laser photobiomodulation is a modality of treatment in clinical practice for tissue regeneration, and it has therapeutic effects as an anti-inflammatory, analgesic and modulating cellular activity. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effects of low-level laser therapy (LLLT) on an autogenous bone graft integration process stabilized with a new heterologous fibrin sealant. Forty rats were divided into two groups: Autogenous Fibrin Graft (AFG, n=20), in which a 5mm dome osteotomy was conducted in the right parietal bone and the graft was adhered to the left side using fibrin sealant; and Autogenous Fibrin Graft Laser (AFGL, n=20), which was subjected to the same procedures as AFG with the addition of LLLT. The treatment was performed immediately following surgery and then three times a week until euthanasia, using an 830nm laser (30mW, 6J/cm(2), 0.116cm(2), 258.6mW/cm(2), 2.9J). Five animals from each group were euthanized at 10, 20, 30 and 40days postoperative, and the samples were submitted to histomorphological and histomorphometric analysis. Partial bone regeneration occurred, with new bone tissue integrating the graft to the recipient bed and small areas of connective tissue. Comparative analysis of the groups at the same intervals revealed minor interfaces in group AFGL, with statistically significant differences (p<0.05) at all of the analyzed intervals (10days p=0.0087, 20days p=0.0012, 30days p<0.0001, 40days p=0.0142). In conclusion, low-level laser therapy stimulated bone regeneration and accelerated the process of integration of autogenous bone grafts.

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Skeletal muscle is capable of secreting different factors in order to communicate with other tissues. These mediators, the myokines, show potentially far-reaching effects on non-muscle tissues and can provide a molecular interaction between muscle and body physiology. Sarcopenia is a chronic degenerative neuromuscular disease closely related to cardiomyopathy and chronic heart failure, which influences the production and release of myokines. Our objective was to explore the relationship between myokines, sarcopenia, and cardiovascular diseases (CVD). The autocrine, paracrine, and endocrine actions of myokines include regulation of energy expenditure, insulin sensitivity, lipolysis, free fatty acid oxidation, adipocyte browning, glycogenolysis, glycogenesis, and general metabolism. A sedentary lifestyle accelerates the aging process and is a risk factor for developing sarcopenia, metabolic syndrome, and CVD. Increased adipose tissue resulting from the decrease in muscle mass in patients with sarcopenia may also be involved in the pathology of CVD. Myokines are protagonists in the complex condition of sarcopenia, which is associated with adverse clinical outcomes in patients with CVD. The discovery of new pathways and the link between myokines and CVD remain a cornerstone toward multifaceted interventions and perhaps the minimization of the damage resulting from muscle loss induced by factors such as atherosclerosis.

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This study aimed to evaluate the effects of low-level laser therapy (LLLT) in the repair of the buccal branch of the facial nerve with two surgical techniques: end-to-end epineural suture and coaptation with heterologous fibrin sealant. Forty-two male Wistar rats were randomly divided into five groups: control group (CG) in which the buccal branch of the facial nerve was collected without injury; (2) experimental group with suture (EGS) and experimental group with fibrin (EGF): The buccal branch of the facial nerve was transected on both sides of the face. End-to-end suture was performed on the right side and fibrin sealant on the left side; (3) Experimental group with suture and laser (EGSL) and experimental group with fibrin and laser (EGFL). All animals underwent the same surgical procedures in the EGS and EGF groups, in combination with the application of LLLT (wavelength of 830 nm, 30 mW optical power output of potency, and energy density of 6 J/cm(2)). The animals of the five groups were euthanized at 5 weeks post-surgery and 10 weeks post-surgery. Axonal sprouting was observed in the distal stump of the facial nerve in all experimental groups. The observed morphology was similar to the fibers of the control group, with a predominance of myelinated fibers. In the final period of the experiment, the EGSL presented the closest results to the CG, in all variables measured, except in the axon area. Both surgical techniques analyzed were effective in the treatment of peripheral nerve injuries, where the use of fibrin sealant allowed the manipulation of the nerve stumps without trauma. LLLT exhibited satisfactory results on facial nerve regeneration, being therefore a useful technique to stimulate axonal regeneration process.

Photobiomodulation therapy (PBMT) has been investigated because of its intimate relationship with tissue recovery processes, such as on peripheral nerve damage. Based on the wide range of benefits that the PBMT has shown and its clinical relevance, the aim of this research was to carry out a systematic review of the last 10 years, ascertaining the influence of the PBMT in the regeneration of injured peripheral nerves. The search was performed in the PubMed/MEDLINE database with the combination of the keywords: low-level laser therapy AND nerve regeneration. Initially, 54 articles were obtained, 26 articles of which were chosen for the study according to the inclusion criteria. In the qualitative aspect, it was observed that PBMT was able to accelerate the process of nerve regeneration, presenting an increase in the number of myelinated fibers and a better lamellar organization of myelin sheath, besides improvement of electrophysiological function, immunoreactivity, high functionality rate, decrease of inflammation, pain, and the facilitation of neural regeneration, release of growth factors, increase of vascular network and collagen. It was concluded that PBMT has beneficial effects on the recovery of nerve lesions, especially when related to a faster regeneration and functional improvement, despite the variety of parameters.

LLLT enhanced axonal regeneration and accelerated functional recovery of the whiskers, and both repair techniques allowed the growth of axons.