Physical Exercise and Myokines: Relationships with Sarcopenia and Cardiovascular Complications

Abstract

Skeletal muscle is capable of secreting different factors in order to communicate with other tissues. These mediators, the myokines, show potentially far-reaching effects on non-muscle tissues and can provide a molecular interaction between muscle and body physiology. Sarcopenia is a chronic degenerative neuromuscular disease closely related to cardiomyopathy and chronic heart failure, which influences the production and release of myokines. Our objective was to explore the relationship between myokines, sarcopenia, and cardiovascular diseases (CVD). The autocrine, paracrine, and endocrine actions of myokines include regulation of energy expenditure, insulin sensitivity, lipolysis, free fatty acid oxidation, adipocyte browning, glycogenolysis, glycogenesis, and general metabolism. A sedentary lifestyle accelerates the aging process and is a risk factor for developing sarcopenia, metabolic syndrome, and CVD. Increased adipose tissue resulting from the decrease in muscle mass in patients with sarcopenia may also be involved in the pathology of CVD. Myokines are protagonists in the complex condition of sarcopenia, which is associated with adverse clinical outcomes in patients with CVD. The discovery of new pathways and the link between myokines and CVD remain a cornerstone toward multifaceted interventions and perhaps the minimization of the damage resulting from muscle loss induced by factors such as atherosclerosis.

Adipokines, Myokines, and Hepatokines: Crosstalk and Metabolic Repercussions

“…These secretion products, called myokines, are peptides, cytokines, or growth factors that show a diversity of autocrine, paracrine, or endocrine actions. These molecules are expressed mainly in physical activities or absence, allowing its communication with other body tissues, thereby showing actions that can be considered beneficial for most myokines or related to metabolic dysfunctions [ 8 , 14 ]. A vast number of myokines were identified, although other tissues also produce some.…”

“…In contrast, technological advances in medicine have raised quality and life expectancy, giving light to another trend in the contemporary world: population aging. However, physiological changes inherent to the aging process, such as sarcopenia, decreased cardiovascular, and cognitive function, added to the population’s bad habits, seem to predispose the body to more significant cardiovascular risks and other chronic diseases associated with aging [ 8 ]. Therefore, physical activity and good eating habits must be encouraged to achieve healthy aging.…”

Rhodiola Crenulata ameliorates exhaustive exercise‑induced fatigue in mice by suppressing mitophagy in skeletal muscle

“…carbohydrates, in addition to being the converter of chemical energy into mechanical energy (10). To maintain a satisfactory level of health and quality of life, a sufficient number of mitochondria in skeletal muscles is required.…”

“…Mitochondria in skeletal muscle can also exhibit physiological adaptation from oxygen-dependent aerobic glycolysis to oxidative phosphorylation under anaerobic conditions ( 9 ). Skeletal muscles account for 30% of the body's weight in humans that serve as the storehouse of amino acids and carbohydrates, in addition to being the converter of chemical energy into mechanical energy ( 10 ). To maintain a satisfactory level of health and quality of life, a sufficient number of mitochondria in skeletal muscles is required.…”

Docosahexaenoic Acid, a Potential Treatment for Sarcopenia, Modulates the Ubiquitin–Proteasome and the Autophagy–Lysosome Systems

“…Even the relatively healthy seniors lose~1% of muscle mass and~3% muscle strength annually [28]. Considering these factors, sarcopenia is similar to other metabolic diseases such as obesity, type II diabetes, and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease [29][30][31][32].…”