Aim To assess the largely neglected patterns and causes of latitudinal diversity gradients in soil protists, using South American testate amoebae as model organisms. Location South‐western South America (SSA). Methods We assessed the relationship among richness, latitude and predictions of eight ecological hypotheses in SSA, a region characterized by harsh abiotic conditions northward and southward from mid‐latitudes. We also examined the patterns of latitudinal variation in species range sizes, species composition and phylogenetic relatedness among species to assess whether the responses of species to current climate rely on evolutionary constraints. Results Richness followed a unimodal trend with abrupt declines northward and southward from mid‐latitudes. This trend was mostly explained by water–energy balance. To our knowledge, this mechanism has never been reported for soil microorganisms before. Species range sizes were larger northward and southward from mid‐latitudes, a pattern which we have called the ‘two‐way Rapoport effect’. Species composition was due to turnover at mid‐latitudes and to nestedness towards low and high latitudes. Species at mid‐latitudes tended to be less related to each other than those at low and high latitudes, supporting the existence of evolutionary constraints to water–energy availability. Main conclusions The unimodal response of species diversity to water and energy availability stems from a combination of the ancestral adaptation of testate amoebae to warm, humid climates and past climate changes that set up permanent harsh abiotic conditions northward and southward from mid‐latitudes. Given that other soil microorganisms also depend on water and energy to survive and reproduce, we predict that the unimodal response to water–energy balance observed will also be valid for a large number of microbial groups in SSA. While this diversity trend may not hold true for testate amoebae from other regions, we predict that their evolutionary constraints to water–energy availability will always produce strong relationships among richness, water and energy at large spatial‐scales.

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Distributional patterns of the South American species of the freshwater amphipod genus Hyalella were analysed using a panbiogeographic approach. Five generalized tracks were found: (1) northern Andes to Lake Titicaca (H.

BackgroundWhy biodiversity is not uniformly distributed on the Earth is a major research question of biogeography. One of the most striking patterns of disparity in species distribution are the biodiversity hotspots, which generally do not fit with the distribution of relevant components of the Neotropical biota. In this study, we assess the proximal causes of the species-richness pattern of one of the most conspicuous groups of Neotropical mammals, the New World monkeys the Platyrrhini. We test two complementary hypotheses: (1) there is a historical source-sink dynamic (addressed using macroevolutionary and macroecological approaches); (2) the large number of species in the Amazon basin is due to the constraints imposed by environmental variables occurring outside this area.MethodsWe first characterize spatial patterns of species richness and biodiversity hotspots using a new, objective protocol based on probabilities. Then we evaluate the source-sink hypothesis using BioGeoBEARS analysis and nestedness analysis of species richness patterns. Complementarily, to measure how often different species pairs appear in the same sites, we used null models to estimate the checkerboard score index (C-score). Finally, we evaluate the relationship between several climatic variables and species richness through ordinary least squares (OLS) and spatial autoregressive (SAR) models, and the potential environmental constraints on the pattern.ResultsWe found one significant cluster of high values for species richness in the Amazon basin. Most dispersal events occurred from the Amazonian subregion to other Neotropical areas. Temperature (T), discrepancy (BR), and NODF indexes show a significant nesting in the matrix ordered by species richness and available energy. The C-score observed was significantly smaller than the null expectation for all sites in the Neotropics where there are records of platyrrhine species. Ten climatic variables comprised the best-fitting model that explains species richness. OLS and SAR models show that this set of variables explains 69.9% and 64.2% of species richness, respectively. Potential of evapotranspiration is the most important variable within this model, showing a linear positive relationship with species richness, and clear lower and upper limits to the species richness distribution.DiscussionWe suggest that New World monkeys historically migrated from their biodiversity hotspot (energetically optimal areas for most platyrrine species) to adjacent, energetically suboptimal areas, and that the different dispersal abilities of these species, the lack of competitive interactions at a macroecological scale, and environmental constraints (i.e., energy availability, seasonality) are key elements which explain the non-uniform pattern of species richness for this clade.

The geographical expansion of invasive species depends mainly on its dispersal potential, and the abiotic and biotic factors affecting it. Knowing the invasive dynamic of non-native species, as well as its behavior at different natural or anthropogenic scenarios, is fundamental for planning conservation management policies and control plans. The invasive sea anemone Anemonia alicemartinae in habits from the north (18°S) to the south-central (36°S) coast of Chile and its distribution range has expanded by approximately 1,928 km in the last 50 years. Previous works have proposed that human-mediated southward transport associated with regional-scale maritime activities could explain its rapid spread. To evaluate this hypothesis, we used ecological niche models (ENM) to evaluate the potential colonization of the southernmost area of South America. Additionally, we conducted a post hoc analysis to evaluate the relationship between the prediction of the ENM and human activity measured as the number of landings of ships in ports. The models were built based on presence records of A. alicemartinae, and oceanographic variables. Results showed that sea surface salinity and annual sea surface temperature (variance) are the best predictor variables to explain the distribution of A. alicemartinae. There was a positive and significant relationship between the geographical distribution of the sea anemone predicted by the ENM and the number of landings, as a proxy of anthropogenic activity. The most susceptible areas to invasion were those that showed the highest variability in both oceanographic predictors. These areas included the Biobío region, Chiloé´s inland sea, Aysén, and Chacabuco regions, which together comprise two biogeographical provinces. These results sustain the proposed hypothesis and, overall, the results suggest that along with the characteristics of the life history of A. alicemartinae, oceanographic conditions and maritime transport as vector contribute to the southern range expansion of this invasive cryptogenic species in the Humboldt-current large marine ecosystem.

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RESUMEN.La clausura del Mar de Tetis y la apertura del Océano Atlántico jugarían un papel relevante en la historia de los calamares de la familia Loliginidae, lo que se reflejaría en su actual distribución nerítico-costera, según la hipótesis vicariante propuesta por Brakoniecki (1986). Este estudio evalúa esta hipótesis y otras ideas alternativas para entender la historia del grupo, sobre la base de una hipótesis filogenética, reconstruida con secuencias mitocondriales y nuclear, que incorpora la incertidumbre, permitiendo estimar tiempos de divergencia para sugerir un nuevo escenario histórico sustentado en la señal filogenética y reconstrucción de la distribución ancestral. Los resultados permiten inferir que Loliginidae se habría originado en el Pacífico Oeste durante el Paleoceno Tardío hace unos 59 Ma, y que durante su diversificación habrían ocurrido al menos 20 eventos de dispersión históricos y 6 de vicarianza. El primer evento de vicarianza fragmenta la distribución ancestral permaneciendo el ancestro de Sepioteuthis en el rango sur y la subfamilia Loligininae en el rango norte. Luego, sucesivos eventos de dispersión, y algunos de vicarianza desvinculados del movimiento de placas tectónicas y apertura del Océano Atlántico, modelaron su distribución. La presente inferencia apunta a un origen distinto al propuesto por Brakoniecki (Mar de Tetis), coherente con un centro de origen que sustenta la mayor diversidad de la familia, con predominancia de los procesos de dispersión (como se evidencia en todos los géneros considerados, salvo Heterololigo), restringidos a desplazamientos nerítico-costeros, que explicarían el patrón de distribución actual. Palabras clave: Loliginidae, biodiversidad, dispersión, filogenia, señal filogenética, vicarianza. Historical biogeography of the squids from the family Loliginidae (Teuthoidea: Myopsida)ABSTRACT. According to the vicariant hypothesis proposed by Brakoniecki (1986) the closure of the Sea of Tethys and the opening of the Atlantic Ocean would play an important role in the history of squids of the family Loliginidae, which is reflected in its current neritic distribution. Our study evaluated this hypothesis and alternative ideas to understand the historical biogeography of loliginid squids. This work is based on a phylogenetic hypothesis rebuilt with mitochondrial and nuclear sequences that incorporates the estimation of divergence times and ancestral distribution. Our results sustain that the squids of the family Loliginidae would have originated in the Western Pacific during the Late Paleocene about 59 My, following, during their diversification, at least 20 dispersion and 6 vicariant events. The first vicariant event fragments the ancestral distribution, remaining the ancestor of Sepioteuthis in the south and the subfamily Loligininae in the north. Successive events of dispersion, and some of vicariance (unrelated with the movement of tectonic plates and opening of the Atlantic Ocean), modeled it distribution. Our inference suggest a different origin compared to p...