Do we run away because we are frightened, or are we frightened because we run away? The authors address this issue with respect to the relation between metacognitive monitoring and metacognitive control. When self-regulation is goal driven, monitoring affects control processes so that increased processing effort should enhance feelings of competence and feelings of knowing. In contrast, when self-regulation is data driven, such feelings may be based themselves on the feedback from control processes, in which case they should decrease with increasing effort. Evidence for both monitoring-based control and control-based monitoring occurring even in the same situation is presented. The results are discussed with regard to the issue of the cause-and-effect relation between subjective experience and behavior.Keywords: metacognition, subjective experience, monitoring, control, judgments of learning A long-standing issue in psychology and philosophy concerns the cause-and-effect relation between phenomenal experience and behavior (Baars, 1988;Bargh, 1997;Bless & Forgas, 2000;Flanagan, 1992;Mandler, 2002;Marcel, 1983aMarcel, , 1983b Marcel & Bisiach, 1988). Whereas many discussions in cognitive psychology assume that subjective experience can play a causal role in influencing behavior, recent findings lend credence to the idea that subjective experience may be based on the feedback from one's own behavior and thus follow rather than precede behavior. Indeed, in reviewing their own work, Kelley and Jacoby (1998) praised the insight owed to the James-Lange view of emotion, according to which "subjective experience can involve an attribution or unconscious inference about effects on performance and so follow from, rather than be responsible for, objective performance" (pp. 127-128). In this article we address the causal links between subjective experience and behavior within a restricted domain-that of metacognitive monitoring and metacognitive control. We believe that our analysis and results can provide some insight into the general issue of the relation between subjective experience and behavior.The Cause-and-Effect Relation Between Subjective Experience and BehaviorMost of the discussions of the status of subjective experience in human behavior have centered on the causal role that consciousness might play in guiding behavior (Schwarz & Clore, 1996). The issue that has been addressed concerns the extent to which phenomenal consciousness affects behavior, in general, and "rational" action, in particular. In Posner and Snyder's (1975) conceptual framework, for example, controlled processes, as opposed to automatic processes, were seen to characterize conscious functioning. Block (1995) associated consciousness with the reflective pursuit of one's goals, arguing that without consciousness one loses the "rational control of action." In Schacter's (1989) model, the conscious system is assumed to function as the gateway to an executive control system that initiates and regulates voluntary action. Only activations that gain ac...

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English-speakers sometimes say that they feel "moved to tears," "emotionally touched," "stirred," or that something "warmed their heart;" other languages use similar passive contact metaphors to refer to an affective state. The authors propose and measure the concept of kama muta to understand experiences often given these and other labels. Do the same experiences evoke the same kama muta emotion across nations and languages? They conducted studies in 19 different countries, 5 continents, 15 languages, with a total of 3,542 participants. They tested the construct while validating a comprehensive scale to measure the appraisals, valence, bodily sensations, motivation, and lexical labels posited to characterize kama muta. The results are congruent with theory and previous findings showing that kama muta is a distinct positive social relational emotion that is evoked by experiencing or observing a sudden intensification of communal sharing. It is commonly accompanied by a warm feeling in the chest, moist eyes or tears, chills or piloerection, feeling choked up or having a lump in the throat, buoyancy, and exhilaration. It motivates affective devotion and moral commitment to communal sharing. Although the authors observed some variations across cultures, these 5 facets of kama muta are highly correlated in every sample, supporting the validity of the construct and the measure. (PsycINFO Database Record

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Norm enforcement may be important for resolving conflicts and promoting cooperation. However, little is known about how preferred responses to norm violations vary across cultures and across domains. In a preregistered study of 57 countries (using convenience samples of 22,863 students and non-students), we measured perceptions of the appropriateness of various responses to a violation of a cooperative norm and to atypical social behaviors. Our findings highlight both cultural universals and cultural variation. We find a universal negative relation between appropriateness ratings of norm violations and appropriateness ratings of responses in the form of confrontation, social ostracism and gossip. Moreover, we find the country variation in the appropriateness of sanctions to be consistent across different norm violations but not across different sanctions. Specifically, in those countries where use of physical confrontation and social ostracism is rated as less appropriate, gossip is rated as more appropriate.