Documenting and exploring the patterns of diversity of life on Earth has always been a central theme in biology. Species richness despite being the most commonly used measure of diversity in macroecological studies suffers from not considering the evolutionary and ecological differences among species. Phylogenetic diversity (PD) and functional diversity (FD) have been proposed as alternative measures to overcome this limitation. Although species richness, PD and FD are closely related, their relationships have never been investigated on a global scale. Comparing PD and FD with species richness corroborated the general assumptions of surrogacy of the different diversity measures. However, the analysis of the residual variance suggested that the mismatches between the diversity measures are influenced by environmental conditions. PD increased relative to species richness with increasing mean annual temperature, whereas FD decreased with decreasing seasonality relative to PD. We also show that the tropical areas are characterized by a FD deficit, a phenomenon, that suggests that in tropical areas more species can be packed into the ecological space. We discuss potential mechanisms that could have resulted in the gradient of spatial mismatch observed in the different biodiversity measures and draw parallels to local scale studies. We conclude that the use of multiple diversity measures on a global scale can help to elucidate the relative importance of historical and ecological processes shaping the present gradients in mammalian diversity.

Linking species and ecosystems often relies on approaches that consider how the traits exhibited by species affect ecosystem processes. One method is to estimate functional diversity (FD) based on the dispersion of species in functional trait space. Individuals within a species also differ, however, and an unresolved challenge is how to include such intraspecific variability in a measure of functional diversity. Our solution is to extend an existing measure to variation among individuals within species. Here, simulations demonstrate how the new measure behaves relative to one that does not include individual variation. Individual-level FD was less well associated with species richness than species-level FD in a single trait dimension, because species differed in their intraspecific variation. However, in multiple trait dimensions, there was a strong association between individual- and species-level FD and richness, because many traits result in a tight relationship between functional diversity and species richness. The correlation between the two FD measures weakened as the amount of intraspecific variability increased. Analyzing natural plant communities we found no relationship between species richness and functional diversity. In these analyses, we did not have to specify the source of intraspecific variation. In fact, the variation was only among individuals. The measure can, however, include differences in the amount of intraspecific variation at different sites, as we demonstrate. Including intraspecific variation should allow a more complete understanding of the processes that link individuals and ecosystems and provide better predictions about the consequences of extinctions for ecosystem processes.

The fact that PD/FD reach faster their maximal value than SR may suggest that the two former facets might be less vulnerable to habitat loss than the latter. While this point is expected, it is the first time that it is quantified at global scale and should have important consequences in conservation. Incorporating species relative coverage into the delineation of multifaceted hotspots of diversity lead to weak congruence between SR, PD and FD hotspots. This means that maximizing species number may fail at preserving those nodes (in the phylogenetic or functional tree) that are relatively abundant in the ecoregion. As a consequence it may be of prime importance to adopt a multifaceted biodiversity perspective to inform conservation strategies at global scale.

The ratio of species extinctions to introductions has been comparable for many insular assemblages, suggesting that introductions could have 'compensated' for extinctions. However, the capacity for introduced species to replace ecological roles and evolutionary history lost following extinction is unclear. We investigated changes in bird functional and phylogenetic diversity in the wake of extinctions and introductions across a sample of 32 islands worldwide. We found that extinct and introduced species have comparable functional and phylogenetic alpha diversity. However, this was distributed at different positions in functional space and in the phylogeny, indicating a 'false compensation'. Introduced and extinct species did not have equivalent functional roles nor belong to similar lineages. This makes it unlikely that novel island biotas composed of introduced taxa will be able to maintain ecological roles and represent the evolutionary histories of pre-disturbance assemblages and highlights the importance of evaluating changes in alpha and beta diversity concurrently.

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The application of a functional trait-based approach to ecological restoration is receiving growing attention worldwide, but lack of knowledge on functional traits and how they link to ecosystem services imposes a major barrier to operationalize such approach. Synthesizing the existing knowledge on functional trait-based restoration is thus a timely and important challenge. We systematically reviewed the literature to assess how ecosystem services are associated to functional traits across organisms, ecosystem types, and continents. We also assessed the existing trait-based frameworks to target ecosystem services in restoration ecology. Then, we discussed future perspectives for the field, especially the challenges of applying trait-based frameworks in megadiverse tropical ecosystems, which have ambitious restoration commitments. Most papers focused on plants (72%), terrestrial habitats (69%), and non-tropical ecosystems (68%) and monitored ecosystem services and functional traits after restoration started rather than using them as previous targets. Only 12% of the papers targeted the restoration of both services and traits a priori, and 3.8% presented a clear trait-based framework to target ecosystem services in restoration. The possibility of selecting alternative subsets of complementary species in their provisioning of ecosystem services should make functional restoration more feasible than traditional approaches in species-rich tropical ecosystems. With this review and our critical insights on the perspectives of applying functional trait-based restoration widely, we hope to assist broad-scale restoration programs to obtain higher levels of benefits for nature and human well-being per unit of area undergoing restoration, going beyond the areabased approach that has dominated restoration commitments.

Estimou-se a produção de serapilheira e a taxa de decomposição do material foliar em uma área de cerradão, fisionomia pouco estudada a esse respeito e muito ameaçada, principalmente no Estado de São Paulo. No período de estudo, a quantidade total de serapilheira produzida foi de 5646,9 kg.ha-1.ano-1, onde a fração 'folhas' teve a maior participação, contribuindo com 4081,2 kg.ha¹.ano-1, seguida pela fração 'ramos' (1066,1 kg.ha-1.ano-1), 'estruturas reprodutivas' (434,1 kg.ha-1.ano-1) e 'miscelânea' (65,5 kg.ha-1.ano-1). A produção de serapilheira foi altamente estacional e correlacionou-se negativamente com a umidade relativa do ar e com a temperatura média do ar. A produção foliar correlacionou-se negativamente com a umidade do ar, precipitação e temperatura média do ar. Não houve diferença significativa entre a produção de serapilheira desse estudo e a encontrada em duas outras áreas com cerradão e mata mesófila semidecídua, porém essas fisionomias vegetais diferiram significativamente da produção em outra área com cerrado sensu stricto. A taxa de decomposição (K) obtida para o material foliar foi de 0,56, com o tempo para decomposição de 50% do material estimado em 1,8 anos e o tempo de renovação do material foliar em 2,3 anos.

Aim To inve stigate geographical patterns of phylogenetic beta diversity (PBD) and its turnover and nestedness-resultant components for terrestrial mammals. We expect an increase in the importance of the nestedness-resultant component towards temperate regions given the historical loss of lineages caused by environmental and spatial constraints. Analogously, we expect to find a similar increase in the contribution of the nestedness-resultant component towards higher elevations. We expect these patterns to be stronger for Rodentia because they have poor dispersal ability and may have been less efficient in recolonizing areas after glaciations.Location World-wide.Methods We generated the species composition of terrestrial Mammalia for 200 km 3 200 km cells to calculate PBD and its turnover and nestednessresultant components. All measures were computed for each cell and the cells in the surrounding radius of one, two or three adjacent layers. We calculated the relative importance of the nestedness-resultant component as the proportion of the total PBD (PBD ratio ) and also PBD deviation given taxonomic beta diversity (PBD dev ). PBD dev measures the importance of phylogenetic beta diversity after factoring out taxonomic beta diversity. We used simple linear regressions and piecewise regressions to investigate relationships between PBD ratio and mean annual temperature and elevation. ResultsWe found a major contribution of the nestedness-resultant component linked to temperate climate, especially for groups with better dispersal capacity. Higher elevations were associated with a major contribution of the turnoverresultant component, particularly for Rodentia. Main conclusionsWe provide the first global representation of PBD in terrestrial mammals and demonstrate that at higher latitudes PBD is mostly a result of lineage loss, whereas in highlands it is linked to lineage turnover. By analysing global patterns of the contribution of PBD components, we demonstrate that dispersal capacity is essential in determining the response of different lineages to geographical and environmental barriers.