Sustainability science recognizes the importance of the integrated assessment of the ecological and social systems in land-use planning. However, most studies so far have been conceptual rather than empirical. We developed a framework to characterize the social-ecological systems heterogeneity according to its functioning through the identification of socialecological functional types (SEFT). The SEFT framework builds on the plant, ecosystem and agent functional type approaches, taking a step forward to integrate the dimensions of social-ecological systems into an operational product to characterize administrative units in a hierarchical way. To illustrate this novel framework, we described the
The social-ecological system (SES) approach is fundamental for addressing global change challenges and to developing sustainability science. Over the last two decades, much progress has been made in translating this approach from theory to practice, although the knowledge generated is still sparse and difficult to compare. To better understand how SESs function across time, space, and scales, coordinated, long-term SES research and monitoring strategies under a common analytical framework are needed. For this purpose, the collection of standard datasets is a cornerstone, but we are still far from identifying and agreeing on the common core set of variables that should be used. In this study, based on literature reviews, expert workshops, and researcher perceptions collected through online surveys, we developed a reference list of 60 variables for the characterization and monitoring of SESs. The variables were embedded in a conceptual framework structured in 13 dimensions that were distributed throughout the three main components of the SES: the social system, the ecological system, and the interactions between them. In addition, the variables were prioritized according to relevance and consensus criteria identified in the survey responses. Variable relevance was positively correlated with consensus across respondents. This study brings new perspectives to address existing barriers in operationalizing lists of variables in the study of SESs, such as the applicability for place-based research, the capacity to deal with SES complexity, and the feasibility for long-term monitoring of social-ecological dynamics. This study may constitute a preliminary step to identifying essential variables for SESs. It will contribute toward promoting the systematic collection of data around most meaningful aspects of the SESs and to enhancing comparability across place-based research and long-term monitoring of complex SESs, and therefore, the production of generalizable knowledge.
Water is the main limiting factor for groundwater-dependent ecosystems (GDEs) in drylands. Predicted climate change (precipitation reductions and temperature increases) and anthropogenic activities such as groundwater drawdown jeopardise the functioning of these ecosystems, presenting new challenges for their management. We developed a trait-based analysis to examine the spatiotemporal variability in the ecophysiology of Ziziphus lotus, a long-lived phreatophyte that dominates one of the few terrestrial GDEs of semiarid regions in Europe. We assessed morpho-functional traits and stem water potential along a naturally occurring gradient of depth-to-groundwater (DTGW, 2–25 m) in a coastal aquifer, and throughout the species-growing season. Increasing DTGW and salinity negatively affected photosynthetic and transpiration rates, increasing plant water stress (lower predawn and midday water potential), and positively affected Huber value (sapwood cross-sectional area per leaf area), reducing leaf area and likely, plant hydraulic demand. However, the species showed greater salt-tolerance at shallow depths. Despite groundwater characteristics, higher atmospheric evaporative demand in the study area, which occurred in summer, fostered higher transpiration rates and water stress, and promoted carbon assimilation and water loss more intensively at shallow water tables. This multiple-trait analysis allowed us to identify plant ecophysiological thresholds related to the increase in salinity, but mostly in DTGW (13 m), and in the evaporative demand during the growing season. These findings highlight the existence of tipping points in the functioning of a long-lived phreatophyte in drylands and can contribute to the sustainable management of GDEs in southern Europe, paving the way for further studies on phreatophytic species.
Water is the main limiting factor for groundwater-dependent ecosystems (GDEs) in drylands. Predicted climate change (precipitation reductions and temperature increases) and anthropogenic activities such as groundwater drawdown jeopardize the structure and functioning of these ecosystems, presenting new challenges for their management. We developed a trait-based analysis to examine the spatiotemporal variability in the ecophysiology of Ziziphus lotus, a phreatophyte that dominates one of the few terrestrial GDEs of semiarid regions in Europe. We assessed morpho-functional and hydraulic traits along a naturally occurring gradient of depth-to-groundwater (DTGW, 2–25 m) in a coastal aquifer, and throughout the growing season of the species. Increasing DTGW and salinity negatively affected photosynthetic and transpiration rates, increasing plant water stress (lower predawn and midday water potential), and positively affected Huber value (sapwood cross-sectional area per leaf area), reducing leaf area and likely, plant hydraulic demand. However, higher atmospheric evaporative demand fostered higher transpiration rates and water stress. Differences in climatic conditions throughout the growing season drove temporal variability in Z. lotus responses along the DTGW gradient, with warmer and drier conditions promoting carbon assimilation and water loss more intensively at shallow water tables. This multiple-trait analysis allowed us to identify plant ecophysiological thresholds related to the increase in DTGW and evaporative demand during the growing season. These findings highlight the existence of tipping points in the ecophysiological functioning of phreatophytic plants in drylands, which contribute to disentangle the functional responses of the related GDEs under groundwater detriment because of climate change effects.
The spatial mapping of social-ecological system (SES) archetypes constitutes a fundamental tool to operationalize the SES concept in empirical research. Approaches to detect, map, and characterize SES archetypes have evolved over the last decade towards more integrative and comparable perspectives guided by SES conceptual frameworks and reference lists of variables. However, hardly any studies have investigated how to empirically identify the most relevant set of indicators to map the diversity of SESs. In this study, we propose a data-driven methodological routine based on multivariate statistical analysis to identify the most relevant indicators for mapping and characterizing SES archetypes in a particular region. Taking Andalusia (Spain) as a case study, we applied this methodological routine to 86 indicators representing multiple variables and dimensions of the SES. Additionally, we assessed how the empirical relevance of these indicators contributes to previous expert and empirical knowledge on key variables for characterizing SESs. We identified 29 key indicators that allowed us to map 15 SES archetypes encompassing natural, mosaic, agricultural, and urban systems, which uncovered contrasting land sharing and land sparing patterns throughout the territory. We found synergies but also disagreements between empirical and expert knowledge on the relevance of variables: agreement on their widespread relevance (32.7% of the variables, e.g., crop and livestock production, net primary productivity, population density); relevance conditioned by the context or the scale (16.3%, e.g., land protection, educational level); lack of agreement (20.4%, e.g., economic level, land tenure); need of further assessments due to the lack of expert or empirical knowledge (30.6%). Overall, our data-driven approach can contribute to more objective selection of relevant indicators for SES mapping, which may help to produce comparable and generalizable empirical knowledge on key variables for characterizing SESs, as well as to derive more representative descriptions and causal factor configurations in SES archetype analysis.
El hábitat prioritario 5220 dominado por Ziziphus lotus ha experimentado en las últimas décadas en España un gran retroceso de su área de distribución y un grave deterioro de su funcionamiento. A pesar del conocimiento generado por parte de los investigadores para su puesta en valor, gestión y conservación, éste difícilmente permea en el ámbito de la gestión y la sociedad. El objetivo de este estudio fue desarrollar y evaluar un proceso transdisciplinar como medio para producir conocimiento colectivo sobre este hábitat y promover una cultura de responsabilidad compartida que contribuya a su conservación. Para llevarlo a cabo 1º) realizamos una revisión bibliográfica del conocimiento existente de esta especie, y 2º) desarrollamos un proceso transdisciplinar en una comunidad de práctica integrada por investigadores, gestores y agentes sociales. Este estudio permitió (1) identificar lagunas de conocimiento científico y oportunidades de investigación en torno a Ziziphus lotus y su hábitat y, (2) definir e impulsar la puesta en práctica de 13 estrategias colaborativas ciencia-gestión-sociedad para contribuir a su conservación. A lo largo del estudio identificamos diversas condiciones operativas que facilitaron el proceso transdisciplinar. Entre estas condiciones destacaron: (i) generación de ambientes de confianza entre miembros de la comunidad de práctica; (ii) empleo de enfoques de intermediación de conocimiento por investigadores con habilidades transdisciplinares, y (iii) creación de procesos deliberativos basados en enfoques de co-aprendizaje y co-producción de conocimiento orientados a la obtención de resultados prácticos. Asimismo, presentamos y evaluamos una herramienta gráfica que actuó como objeto frontera, catalizando la acción colectiva para la conservación de esta especie. Este estudio puede servir de guía para desarrollar futuros procesos transdisciplinares en otros contextos y ámbitos.
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