Moringa oleifera Lam (Moringaceae) is a plant with high nutritional and medicinal value. Native to India, it is now widely distributed throughout tropical and subtropical regions of the world. Its different parts are sources of proteins, vitamins and minerals and present different pharmacological and biotechnological potential. Moreover, M. oleifera seeds are widely used in water and effluent treatment, for their coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation properties, their ability of improving water quality, by reducing organic matter and microbial load, with special applicability in intensive animal production systems, such as aquaculture. In addition, due to its high nutritional value and several medicinal properties, this tree may act as a nutritional and medical alternative for socially neglected populations. In this context, this review gathers information on M. oleifera, emphasizing its chemical constituents, nutritional, pharmacological and antimicrobial properties, applications in the treatment of water effluents, and ecological and social aspects.

Supplemental Figure 1. Representative images of confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) of the effects of kaempferol and quercetin on growing biofilms of C. orthopsilosis and C. metapsilosis. 1-3(A) Growing biofilms of C. orthopsilosis. 1(A) C. orthopsilosis unexposed growth control; 2(A) growth at minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of kaempferol, notice the reduction in biofilm thickness; 3(A) growth at MIC of quercetin, notice the reduction in biofilm thickness and in the number of live cells and a decrease in the live:dead/damaged cell ratio. 1-3(B) growing biofilms of C. metapsilosis. 1(B) C. metapsilosis unexposed growth control; 2(B) growth at MIC of kaempferol and 3(B) growth at MIC of quercetin, notice the reduction in biofilm thickness and in the amount of live and dead cells, after exposure to both compounds. Side bars demonstrate biofilm thickness. Magnification: 400X. Laser: 488 nm reveals SYTO9, which demonstrates live cells (green); 561 nm reveals propidium iodide, which demonstrates dead/damaged cells (red). Scale: 100 µm. Supplemental Figure 2. Representative images of confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) of the effects of kaempferol on mature biofilms of C. orthopsilosis and C. metapsilosis. 1(A) C. orthopsilosis unexposed growth control. 2(A) exposure of mature biofilms of C. orthopsilosis to 10-times the minimum inhibitory concentration (10XMIC) of kaempferol, notice the reduction in biofilm thickness and in the number of live cells and an increase in the amount of dead/damaged cells. 1(B) C. metapsilosis unexposed growth control. 2(B) exposure of mature biofilms of C. metapsilosis to 10XMIC of kaempferol, notice the reduction in biofilm thickness and in the amount of live and dead/damaged cells. Side bars demonstrate biofilm thickness. Magnification: 400X.Laser: 488 nm reveals SYTO9, which demonstrates live cells (green); 561 nm reveals propidium iodide, which demonstrates dead/damaged cells (red). Scale: 100 µm.

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The extracts of pods, flowers and leaves of M. oleifera have potential for the control of Vibrio spp. Further studies are necessary to isolate the bioactive compounds responsible for this antimicrobial activity.

This study investigated potential mechanisms of azole resistance among Candida albicans from animals, including efflux pump activity, ergosterol content and gene expression. For this purpose, 30 azole-resistant C. albicans strains from animals were tested for their antifungal susceptibility, according to document M27-A3, efflux pump activity by rhodamine 6G test, ergosterol content and expression of the genes CDR1, CDR2, MDR1, ERG11 by RT-qPCR. These strains were resistant to at least one azole derivative. Resistance to fluconazole and itraconazole was detected in 23 and 26 strains respectively. Rhodamine 6G tests showed increased activity of efflux pumps in the resistant strains, showing a possible resistance mechanism. There was no difference in ergosterol content between resistant and susceptible strains, even after fluconazole exposure. From 30 strains, 22 (73.3%) resistant animal strains overexpressed one or more genes. From this group, 40.9% (9/22) overexpressed CDR1, 18.2% (4/22) overexpressed CDR2, 59.1% (13/22) overexpressed MDR1 and 54.5% (12/22) overexpressed ERG11. Concerning gene expression, a positive correlation was observed only between CDR1 and CDR2. Thus, azole resistance in C. albicans strains from animals is a multifactorial process that involves increased efflux pump activity and the overexpression of different genes.

This study aimed to investigate the influence of tetraconazole and malathion, both used in agricultural activities, on resistance to fluconazole, itraconazole and voriconazole in Candida parapsilosis ATCC 22019. The susceptibility to tetraconazole, malathion, fluconazole, itraconazole and voriconazole, through broth microdilution. Then, 12 independent replicates, were separated and exposed to four treatment groups, each one containing three replicates: G1: tetraconazole; G2: malathion; G3: fluconazole (positive control); G4: negative control. Replicates from G1, G2 and G3, were exposed to weekly increasing concentrations of tetraconazole, malathion and fluconazole, respectively, ranging from MIC/2 to 32 × MIC, throughout 7 weeks. The exposure to tetraconazole, but not malathion, decreased susceptibility to clinical azoles, especially fluconazole. The tetraconazole-induced fluconazole resistance is partially mediated by the increased activity of ATP-dependent efflux pumps, considering the increase in antifungal susceptibility after the addition of the efflux pump inhibitor, promethazine, and the increase in rhodamine 6G efflux and CDR gene expression in the G1 replicates. Moreover, MDR expression was only detected in G1 and G3 replicates, suggesting that MDR pumps are also involved in tetraconazole-induced fluconazole resistance. It is noteworthy that tetraconazole and fluconazole-treated replicates behaved similarly, therefore, resistance to azoles of clinical use may be a consequence of using azoles in farming activities.

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