6G wireless networks improve on 5G by further increasing reliability, speeding up the networks and increasing the available bandwidth. These evolutionary enhancements, together with a number of revolutionary improvements such as highprecision 3D localization, ultra-high reliability and extreme mobility, introduce a new generation of 6G-native applications. Such application can be based on, for example, distributed, ubiquitous Artificial Intelligence (AI) and ultra-reliable, low-latency Internet of Things (IoT). Along with the enhanced connectivity and novel applications, privacy and security of the networks and the applications must be ensured. Distributed ledger technologies such as blockchain provide one solution for application security and privacy, but introduce their own set of security and privacy risks. In this work, we discuss the opportunities and challenges related to blockchain usage in 6G, and map out possible directions for overtaking the challenges.
Blockchain is a public open ledger that provides data integrity in a distributed manner. It is the underlying technology of cryptocurrencies and an increasing number of related applications, such as smart contracts. The open nature of blockchain together with strong integrity guarantees on the stored data makes it a compelling platform for covert communication. In this paper, we suggest a method of securely embedding covert messages into a blockchain. We formulate a simplified ideal blockchain model based on existing implementations and devise a protocol that enables two parties to covertly communicate through the blockchain following that model. We also formulate a rigorous definition for the security and covertness of such a protocol based on computational indistinguishability. Finally, we show that our method satisfies this definition in the random oracle model for the underlying cryptographic hash function.
We survey the state-of-the-art non-interactive zero-knowledge argument schemes and their applications in confidential transactions and private smart contracts on blockchain. The main goal of this paper is to serve as a reference for blockchain application developers in finding the most suitable scheme for a particular use case. We give an overview and compare the state-of-the-art protocols for confidential transactions and private smart contracts regarding the protection of the transaction graph and amounts, data and functionality. However, our main focus is on state-of-the-art zero-knowledge argument schemes. We briefly describe their backgrounds, proof lengths and computational complexities and discuss their cryptographic security models. Our focus is on seminal, otherwise notable and, especially, implemented methods that are ready to be applied in practice. We also survey the existing implementations of transforming computations into circuit representations required by those methods. We note that the existing schemes have different strengths and drawbacks regarding usability, setup, proof length and proving and verification costs.
In this paper, we present a vision for a blockchainbased Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS) as an application of edge computing. In current MaaS systems, a central MaaS operator plays a crucial role serving an intermediate layer which manages and controls the connections between transportation providers and passengers with several other features. Since the willingness of public and private transportation providers to connect to this layer is essential in the current realization of MaaS, in our vision, to eliminate this layer, a novel blockchain-based MaaS is proposed. The solution also improves trust and transparency for all stakeholders as well as eliminates the need to make commercial agreements with separate MaaS agents. From a technical perspective, the power of computing and resources are distributed to different transportation providers at the edge of the network providing trust in a decentralised way. The blockchainbased MaaS has the potential to emerge as the main component for a smart city transportation offering efficiency and reducing carbon dioxide emissions. Index Terms-Mobility-as-a-Service, MaaS, blockchain, blockchain-based MaaS, smart contract, intelligent transport systems, edge of things, security.
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