Hydrogels consist of a cross-linked polymer matrix imbibed with a solvent such as water at volume fractions that can exceed 90%. They are important in many scientific and engineering applications due to their tunable physiochemical properties, biocompatibility, and ultralow friction. Their multiphase structure leads to a complex interfacial rheology, yet a detailed, microscopic understanding of hydrogel friction is still emerging. Using a custom-built tribometer, here we identify three distinct regimes of frictional behavior for polyacrylic acid (PAA), polyacrylamide (PAAm), and agarose hydrogel spheres on smooth surfaces. We find that at low velocities, friction is controlled by hydrodynamic flow through the porous hydrogel network and is inversely proportional to the characteristic pore size. At high velocities, a mesoscopic, lubricating liquid film forms between the gel and surface that obeys elastohydrodynamic theory. Between these regimes, the frictional force decreases by an order of magnitude and displays slow relaxation over several minutes. Our results can be interpreted as an interfacial shear thinning of the polymers with an increasing relaxation time due to the confinement of entanglements. This transition can be tuned by varying the solvent salt concentration, solvent viscosity, and sliding geometry at the interface.

Lightning is often observed during explosive volcanic eruptions, and the charging processes associated with these displays have been attributed to several mechanisms. In this work we delineate a set of experiments designed to quantify silicate-based triboelectric charging in the volcanic context. Using natural samples from three different volcanoes, we show that the rate of triboelectrification in a fluidized bed depends on the energy input into the granular system. Experiments are conducted employing nonintrusive electrostatic sensors, ensuring that all charge exchange arises solely from particle-particle collisions. At higher fluidization energies, particles undergo more frequent and energetic collisions, facilitating the transfer of charge. This finding implies that triboelectric charging could help promote charging in regions of the eruptive system that contain numerous particle-particle collisions such as the conduit and gas thrust regions. Our experiments also suggest that surface charge density is capped, at least in part, by atmospheric conditions, specifically the breakdown characteristics of the gas.

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Observations at numerous volcanoes reveal that eruptions are often accompanied by continual radio frequency (CRF) emissions. The source of this radiation, however, has remained elusive until now. Through experiments and the analysis of field data, we show that CRF originates from proximal discharges driven by the compressible fluid dynamics associated with individual volcanic explosions. Blasts produce flows that expand supersonically, generating regions of weakened dielectric strength in close proximity to the vent. As erupted material—charged through fragmentation, friction, or other electrification process—transits through such a region, pyroclasts remove charge from their surfaces in the form of small interparticle spark discharges or corona discharge. Discharge is maintained as long as overpressured conditions at the vent remain. Beyond describing the mechanism underlying CRF, we demonstrate that the magnitude of the overpressure at the vent as well as the structure of the supersonic jet can be inferred in real time by detecting and locating CRF sources.

When mobilized, granular materials become charged as grains undergo collisions and frictional interactions. On Earth, this process, known as triboelectrification, has been recognized in volcanic plumes and sandstorms. Yet, frictional charging almost certainly exists on other worlds, both in our own Solar System (such as Mars, the Moon, and Venus) and exosolar planets. Indeed, observations suggest that numerous planets in the galaxy are enshrouded by optically-thick clouds or hazes. Triboelectric charging within these clouds may contribute to global electric circuits of these worlds, providing mechanisms to generate lightning, drive chemical processes in the atmospheres, and, perhaps, influence habitability. In this work, we explore the frictional electrification of potassium chloride and zinc sulfide, two substances proposed to make up the clouds of giant exo-planets with >50x solar metallicities, including the widely-studied super-Earth GJ 1214b, super-earth HD 97658b, Neptune-sized GJ 436b, and hot-Jupiter WASP-31b. We find that both materials become readily electrified when mobilized, attaining charge densities similar to those found on volcanic ash particles. Thus, if these worlds do indeed host collections of mineral particles in their atmospheres, these clouds are likely electrified and may be capable of producing lightning or corona discharge.

The triboelectrification of ash in low-energy collisions is modulated by humidity 8 and temperature on long timescales 9• The amount of electrostatic charge gained by ash through triboelectric processes is reduced in wet environments over minute-long timescales• The reduction in triboelectric charging efficiency in humid environments suggests that other electrification mechanisms dominate in maturing columns

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