BACKGROUND: The essential oils (EO) carvacrol, thymol, eugenol and trans-cinnamaldehyde have welldocumented antimicrobial properties and offer therefore an alternative for the antimicrobial growth promoters in pig feeds. The aim of this work was to determine the degradation and kinetics of these EO along the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) of piglets, which is necessary information for correct application in pig feeds.

Two trials were conducted to study the effects of dose and formulation of carvacrol and thymol on bacterial counts, metabolites and functional traits of the gut in weaned piglets. In the first experiment (Exp. I), 25 piglets (28 d, 6.59 +/- 0.48 kg BW) were allocated to five dietary treatments: a control diet, or the same diet supplemented with either carvacrol or thymol at doses of 500 and 2000 mg kg(-1). In the second experiment (Exp. II), 35 piglets (28 d, 7.99 +/- 0.73 kg BW) were assigned to seven dietary treatments: the same control diet as in Exp. I, or this diet supplemented with thymol in one of three formulations (on celite, on alphacel or microencapsulated) at doses of 500 and 2000 mg kg(-1). At 11/12 days post-weaning piglets were euthanised, and digesta from stomach, proximal and distal small intestine were sampled for bacteriological and biochemical analysis. Small intestinal tissue was sampled for histomorphological determinations. In none of the experiments or sections of the gut was the number of bacteria lowered by the carvacrol or thymol supplementation. In Exp. I, the villus/crypt ratio at the distal small intestine for the experimental diets (1.30-1.32) was higher than for the control diet (1.24) (p < 0.05). Thymol fed animals in Exp. II had a lower number of intra-epithelial lymphocytes at the proximal (p < 0.05) and at the distal (p < 0.1) small intestine as compared to control animals. Mean concentration of the active ingredient in the stomach and proximal small intestine for the 2000 mg kg(-1) carvacrol diet was 521 and 5 mg kg(-1) fresh digesta, respectively, and for the 2000 mg kg(-1) thymol diets it ranged between 475 and 647 and between 13 and 24 mg kg(-1) fresh digesta, respectively. Cumulative absorption in the proximal small intestine was higher than 90% for all treatments and was not affected by formulation type. These data suggest that carvacrol and thymol can improve gut health, but evidence for clear antimicrobial effects towards the major culturable bacteria of the pig foregut is limited.

Fermented liquid feed is feed that has been mixed with water at a ratio ranging from 1:1.5 to 1:4. By mixing with water, lactic acid bacteria and yeasts naturally occurring in the feed proliferate and produce lactic acid, acetic acid and ethanol which reduces the pH of the mixture. This reduction in pH inhibits pathogenic organisms from developing in the feed. In addition, when this low pH mixture is fed, it reduces the pH in the stomach of pigs and prevents the proliferation of pathogens such as coliforms and Salmonella in the gastrointestinal tract. For piglets, the use of fermented liquid feed offers the possibility of simultaneously providing feed and water, which may facilitate an easier transition from sow’s milk to solid feed. Secondly, offering properly produced fermented liquid feed may strengthen the role of the stomach as the first line of defense against possible pathogenic infections by lowering the pH in the gastrointestinal tract thereby helping to exclude enteropathogens. Finally, feeding fermented liquid feed to pigs has been shown to improve the performance of suckling pigs, weaner pigs and growing-finishing pigs. In this review, current knowledge about the use of fermented liquid feed in pig diets will be discussed. This will include a discussion of the desirable properties of fermented liquid feed and factors affecting fermentation. In addition, advantages and disadvantages of fermented liquid feed will be discussed including its effects on gastrointestinal health, intestinal pH and the types of bacteria found in the gastrointestinal tract as well as the effects of fermented liquid feeds on pig performance.

The digestive function of low birth weight (LBW) pigs post-weaning has been poorly studied. Therefore, newborns from eleven hyperprolific sows were weighed, weaned at 27·2 d and fed a starter diet until sampling. Sampling was done between 18 and 28 d post-weaning. An LBW piglet (n 19) was defined as a piglet having a birth weight less than 1 kg and less than the lower quartile of litter birth weights. Normal birth weight (NBW) piglets (n 13) were having a birth weight close to the mean litter birth weight. For each piglet, eighty-eight variables were determined. Data were analysed with linear models with type of piglet and litter as predictors. A principal component analysis was performed to determine the most important discriminating variables. In the LBW pig, the development of the digestive tract postweaning was delayed: lower small-intestinal weight:length ratio due to a thinner tela submucosa and tunica muscularis and a higher secretory capacity, both in the distal jejunum. These observations might be a consequence of lower circulating insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) concentrations (126 (SE 10·0) v. 158 (SE 12·0) ng/ml for LBW and NBW, respectively) and a lower density of IGF-1 receptors in the proximal small intestine. Additionally, the plasma antioxidant capacity was lower for the LBW pig. Taken together, in the LBW piglet, the normal gut maturation post-weaning was retarded and this did not seem to be related to the weaning transition as such.

1. Fermented feed has been shown to be beneficial in pig nutrition as a tool to reduce gut microbial disorders. Experiments with fermented feed in poultry are scarce, probably because of the belief that wet feed is less suitable for this species and causes wet litter. 2. A total of 280 one-d-old Ross 308 chickens were used in a completely randomised design with two dietary treatments (7 replicates of 20 birds/treatment); air-dry feed versus the same feed in moist form (water:feed ratio of 1.3:1, on a weight basis), inoculated with Lactobacillus plantarum NCIMB 40087 (9 log10 CFU/kg feed) and batch-fermented for 48 h at 26°C. The birds were given starter (d 0-13), grower (d 4-26) and finisher (d 27-39) diets ad libitum. At the end of the grower and finisher period, two birds per pen were removed to sample intestinal contents for cultivating bacteria and intestinal tissue to determine villus height and crypt depth. 3. Fermented moist feed (FMF) batches showed good characteristics, with a pH between 3.9 and 4.4 and DL-lactic acid between 137 and 286 mmol/l. Daily feed intake and gain were reduced considerably in the FMF group in the starter (-40 and -44%, respectively) and grower (-23 and -16%) period, though in the finisher period these birds performed better, with an improved feed utilisation. Concomitant with the latter, villus height at the mid-jejunum and mid-ileum on d 39 was higher (+22.6% and +16.0%). Significantly more Lactobacilli and less coliforms were found in the foregut and less Streptococci in ileum and caeca of birds given FMF. 4. This trial showed that FMF was detrimental for early bird growth but affected beneficially feed efficiency, the composition of the gut bacteria and villus height in the small intestine in the finisher period in broilers.

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The aim was to assess the effects of intact dried Ascophyllum nodosum seaweed on piglet performances, gut bacteria and function and plasma oxidative status. A total of 160 weaned piglets (21 days, 6.59 ± 0.91 kg) were allocated to four dietary treatments with eight pen replicates of five animals each for 28 days: a control diet; based on cereals, soybean meal and milk products, and three basal diets supplemented with either 2.5, 5.0 or 10.0 g dried seaweed per kg. At day 12/13 one piglet from each pen was sacrificed. Plasma samples were taken to determine parameters of oxidative status. Digesta were sampled for microbiological plate countings onto selective media and molecular analysis using PCR-DGGE. Small intestinal tissue was taken for morphological and electro-physiological determinations. Data were analysed by a linear model with treatment as fixed effect. A. nodosum supplementation had no effect on daily weight gain, nor did it alter feed conversion ratio. Plate countings failed to reveal differences among treatments. Dendograms prepared using PCR-DGGE banding patterns did not indicate clustering of microbial profiles based on diet supplement. Plasma oxidative status and outcome of morphology and of electro-physiological measurements from gut tissues were similar for all treatments. Thus, the addition of A. nodosum seaweed to well digestible diets did not enhance performances of piglets nor some gut health parameters and plasma oxidative status.