Biodiversity loss-one of the most prominent forms of modern environmental change-has been heavily driven by terrestrial habitat loss and, in particular, the spread and intensification of agriculture. Expanding agricultural land-use has led to the search for strong conservation strategies, with some suggesting that biodiversity conservation in agriculture is best maximized by reducing local management intensity, such as fertilizer and pesticide application. Others highlight the importance of landscape-level approaches that incorporate natural or semi-natural areas in landscapes surrounding farms. Here, we show that both of these practices are valuable to the conservation of biodiversity, and that either local or landscape factors can be most crucial to conservation planning depending on which types of organisms one wishes to save. We performed a quantitative review of 266 observations taken from 31 studies that compared the impacts of localized (within farm) management strategies and landscape complexity (around farms) on the richness and abundance of plant, invertebrate and vertebrate species in agro-ecosystems. While both factors significantly impacted species richness, the richness of sessile plants increased with less-intensive local management, but did not significantly respond to landscape complexity. By contrast, the richness of mobile vertebrates increased with landscape complexity, but did not significantly increase with less-intensive local management. Invertebrate richness and abundance responded to both factors. Our analyses point to clear differences in how various groups of organisms respond to differing scales of management, and suggest that preservation of multiple taxonomic groups will require multiple scales of conservation.

Rydin, H. 2004. Distribution pattern of the epiphyte Neckera pennata on three spatial scales Á/ importance of past landscape structure, connectivity and local conditions. Á/ Ecography 27: 757 Á/766.We tested which factors explain the distribution pattern of the epiphytic moss Neckera pennata on three spatial scales using the framework of generalized linear models. First, we tested which factors explained its occurrence in forest stands in a 2500 ha landscape. At this scale, we also tested the effect of the historic landscape structure. We recorded its occurrence in all suitable stands. The occurrence probability increased with increasing present quantity of Acer platanoides, and with increasing present and past quantity of Fraxinus excelsior. The probability also increased with increasing connectivity to occupied stands. However, the connectivity to stands present in 1977 (recorded from infra-red aerial photographs) explained more of the variation. This suggests that the regional metapopulation size of N. pennata has decreased during the past decades, and that its present distribution pattern reflects the age of the remaining stands, and the distribution of past dispersal sources in the landscape. Second, we tested which factors explained the occurrence and abundance on individual trees in three forest stands. Neckera pennata mainly occurred on Acer and Fraxinus stems. The most important variable in explaining occurrence probability was connectivity to surrounding occupied trees, which probably reflects the restricted dispersal range in this species. The abundance on occupied trees was also explained by this variable. The occurrence probability and abundance also increased with increasing tree diameter, probably reflecting the time that a tree has been available for colonization and the time since colonization, respectively. The occurrence probability and abundance furthermore decreased on strongly leaning (and deteriorating) trees. The occurrence probability increased with increasing bark roughness, probably reflecting increasing suitability regarding bark chemistry and moisture. Third, we tested its vertical distribution on occupied trees. The main distribution was below 1.6 m.Habitat loss and fragmentation are the primary causes for species declines and extinctions worldwide (Heywood 1995). Species forming metapopulations naturally go extinct and re-colonize their habitat patches in the landscape (Hanski and Gaggiotti 2004), but they too experience declines as the area of suitable habitat decreases and the spatial distance between habitat patches increases. The metapopulation capacity of a landscape depends on the amount of suitable habitat and its spatial configuration, and, together with the speciesspecific colonization and extinction rates, defines the equilibrium fraction of patches occupied by a species in

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We review the consequences for biodiversity and ecosystem services from the industrial-scale extraction of logging residues (tops, branches and stumps from harvested trees and small-diameter trees from thinnings) in managed forests. Logging residue extraction can replace fossil fuels, and thus contribute to climate change mitigation. The additional biomass and nutrients removed, and soils and other structures disturbed, have several potential environmental impacts. To evaluate potential impacts on ecosystem services and biodiversity we reviewed 279 scientific papers that compared logging residue extraction with non-extraction, the majority of which were conducted in Northern Europe and North America. The weight of available evidence indicates that logging residue extraction can have significant negative effects on biodiversity, especially for species naturally adapted to sun-exposed conditions and the large amounts of dead wood that are created by large-scaled forest disturbances. Slash extraction may also pose risks for future biomass production itself, due to the associated loss of nutrients. For water quality, reindeer herding, mammalian game species, berries, and natural heritage the results were complicated by primarily negative but some positive effects, while for recreation and pest control positive effects were more consistent. Further, there are initial negative effects on carbon storage, but these effects are transient and carbon stocks are mostly restored over decadal time perspectives. We summarize ways of decreasing some of the negative effects of logging residue extraction on specific ecosystem services, by changing the categories of residue extracted, and site or forest type targeted for extraction. However, we found that suggested pathways for minimizing adverse outcomes were often in conflict among the ecosystem services assessed. Compensatory measures for logging residue extraction may also be used (e.g. ash recycling, liming, fertilization), though these may also be associated with adverse environmental impacts.

Forest residue left after clear-cutting is increasingly being used as biofuel in Sweden. Deadwood is an important habitat for many species and a crucial resource for forest biodiversity. On eight clear-cuts in eastern central Sweden, the amount of Picea abies (L.) Karst. deadwood left on the ground was compared with the amount collected in piles for fuelwood extraction. It was found that 65% of the volume, 77% of the surface area and 84% of the pieces of slash were to be extracted. In another study on 23 clear-cuts in the same region, it was found that 36% of the logs left outside piles after clear-cutting were later removed. These studies indicate that a considerable amount of potential substrate is lost during slash extraction.

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This is an author produced version of a paper published in Biological Conservation. This paper has been peer-reviewed but may not include the final publisher proof-corrections or pagination.