Risk of obesity in adult life is subject to programming during gestation. To examine whether in utero exposure to maternal obesity increases the risk of obesity in offspring, we developed an overfeeding-based model of maternal obesity in rats utilizing intragastric feeding of diets via total enteral nutrition. Feeding liquid diets to adult female rats at 220 kcal/kg(3/4) per day (15% excess calories/day) compared with 187 kcal/kg(3/4) per day for 3 wk caused substantial increase in body weight gain, adiposity, serum insulin, leptin, and insulin resistance. Lean or obese female rats were mated with ad libitum AIN-93G-fed male rats. Exposure to obesity was ensured to be limited only to the maternal in utero environment by cross-fostering pups to lean dams having ad libitum access to AIN-93G diets throughout lactation. Numbers of pups, birth weight, and size were not affected by maternal obesity. Male offspring from each group were weaned at postnatal day (PND)21 to either AIN-93G diets or high-fat diets (45% fat calories). Body weights of offspring from obese dams did not differ from offspring of lean dams when fed AIN-93G diets through PND130. However, offspring from obese dams gained remarkably greater (P < 0.005) body weight and higher % body fat when fed a high-fat diet. Body composition was assessed by NMR, X-ray computerized tomography, and weights of adipose tissues. Adipose histomorphometry, insulin sensitivity, and food intake were also assessed in the offspring. Our data suggest that maternal obesity at conception leads to fetal programming of offspring, which could result in obesity in later life.

Reference %fat and total fat-free mass data is necessary for evaluating growth in infants. We aimed to develop longitudinal %fat and total fat-free mass data in infants from birth to 6 months of age. An observational, multicenter, prospective cohort study was conducted with assessments at birth, 1 week, 2 weeks, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 months of age. Subjects were exclusively breast-fed and were enrolled at three centers. Whole-body composition (i.e., % fat and total fat-free mass) were assessed using air-displacement plethysmography (ADP) (PEA POD; Life Measurement, Concord, CA). Maternal prepregnancy BMI, gestational weight gain, and infant anthropometric data were collected. A total of 160 infants (boys = 84) were assessed from birth to 4 months of age. Mean birth weight was 3.46 ± 0.39 kg % fat and fat-free mass significantly increased from birth to 4 months of age (P < 0.0001). Gender-specific %fat and total fat-free mass curves for infants from birth to 4 months of age were created. This study will be beneficial to health-care professionals in evaluating normal growth and nutritional patterns in the first months of life.

Soy formula (SF) has been fed to millions of infants worldwide. It has been shown to promote growth and development as well as milk-based formula (MF). Controversy has developed over the adequacy and safety of SF. Most concerns are based on in vivo and in vitro data that raise the possibility of estrogenic effects of isoflavones contained in SF. There are few studies of children who were fed SF, and thus insufficient data are available to judge if SF feeding results in clinically significant developmental effects and if there are any long-term health consequences (adverse or beneficial). However, the Arkansas Children's Nutrition Center is conducting a prospective longitudinal study comparing growth, development, and health of breastfed children with formula-fed (SF and MF) children from birth through age 6 y. After 5 y of study, children in all 3 groups (n > 300) are growing and developing within normal limits, and there are no indications of adverse effects in the soy-fed children. Neonatal pig studies comparing SF, MF, and breast milk (BM) have shown diet-specific gene expression profiles in various target tissues. Therefore, although SF differed significantly from BM, MF also differed from BM, and SF differed from MF. Nonetheless, these animals grew and developed normally, and SF piglets had several health benefits (eg, increased bone quality) and no observable adverse effects. Thus, to date, our results suggest that SF supports normal growth and may have advantages in promoting bone development.

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Findings are comparable to published data from healthy women and warrant replication in larger, more diverse samples of women treated for breast cancer.

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Controversy exists about the safety of soy formula, with the main concern relating to potential estrogenic effects of soy protein. Since estrogens influence early brain development, we compared behavioral development and cortical responses (event-related potentials; ERPs) to speech sounds in infants fed either breast milk or formula (milk- or soy-based). Across-groups ERP measures were generally similar and behavioral measures were within normal ranges, suggesting no important influences of soy formula on behavioral development and brain function during the study period. Analyses relating ERP and behavioral measures revealed diet- and gender-specific emphases that may reflect differences in developmental trajectories of brain-behavior relationships.

This investigation evaluated variations in resting heart rate (HR) measures during the first half year of life in healthy, full-term infants who were either breast-fed (BF), or fed formula with (milk-based: MF; soy-based: SF) or without (soy-based: SF(-)) commercially supplemented DHA (decosahexaenoic acid). In infants fed the DHA-deficient diet, higher HR and lower values for heart rate variability measures were observed, indicating decreased parasympathetic tone in this group. These effects, appearing at 4 months and continuing for the remainder of the study period, are consistent with suggestions that the 3-5-month postnatal interval may be an important period in the development of cardiovascular regulation. The absence of these effects in SF infants receiving the DHA-supplemented formula suggests that neither soy protein nor the associated phytochemicals in soy formula contribute to these effects to any appreciable extent. In general, the results do not indicate differences in any of the study variables attributable to soy formula per se.