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ABSTRACT. In this paper, we present an overview of classical genetic markers in nonhuman primates and then contrast the discriminatory powers of these markers with DNA markers. We have restricted the scope of our discussion to genetic markers found in blood, since they have been studied most extensively over the past 30 years. For example, immunoglobulin allotypes, complement markers, transferrins, and other protein markers can be identified using serum or plasma. Lymphocytes carry the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) markers, which are very polymorphic in most nonhuman primates. Lymphocytes are also used as a source of DNA. Finally, red blood cells carry an enormous array of blood group as well as isozyme markers. Our discussion will be limited to three species: rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta), baboons (Papio hamadryas), and chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), although the principles are applicable to all nonhuman primates.Key Words: Blood groups; Biochemical polymorphisms; Tandem repeats; Parentage determination. BLOOD GROUP MARKERSThe blood group markers were among the first genetic markers clearly defined in nonhuman primates (DOGCLEnY & STONE, 1971;STONE, 1967). Chimpanzees are polymorphic for the human ABO blood groups and can be typed for them using a simple agglutination test. However, the majority of reagents that detect polyrnorphic systems in humans do not detect genetic variation in nonhuman primates (SocHA, 1989). To type Old World monkeys, it is necessary to use operationally monospecific alloimmune sera (FREOERICI~ et al., 1990). A polyspecific blood typing serum would detect the products of several unidentifiable loci and, in this respect, would be similar to a multi-locus DNA fingerprinting probe. We have produced monospecific reagents that detect polymorphisms at 13 independent blood group loci in rhesus monkeys. Using these reagents, almost two million possible genotypes can be differentiated (STONE et al., 1987).These blood groups have been used for parentage testing (SULLIVAN et al., 1977) as shown in Table I. The offspring clearly inherited factors G1, H2, I1, and M3 from its father, since these are absent in the mother. The only male with all of these factors is designated the true father. This case demonstrates the power of markers which define genotypes over those which only characterize phenotypes.Blood groups have been used to study the relationship between male social dominance and reproductive success in a captive troop of rhesus monkeys (CURIE-COHEN et al., 1983).In this troop, the social structure remained relatively stable over an eight-year period, 366 W.H. STONE et al. although the number of adult males varied from 4 to 10. Using blood typing, we determined paternity for 48 of 77 offspring born into the colony. The 62~ success rate is remarkable given that this was a closed troop with considerable inbreeding. Our results (Table 2) indicated that the dominant male sired only 13-32~ of the offspring, even though he participated in 67~ of the observed copulations. Surprisingly, t...

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One of the prime concerns at zoos and at primate breeding facilities is to maintain genetic variability. This can be accomplished by avoiding inbreeding. It is relatively easy to assess genetic variability and the level of inbreeding by using pedigree information and genetic markers. In this study we used genetic markers controlled by 6 independent polymorphic loci (GPI, PGD, CA2, MPI, DIAl, Tf) to ascertain genetic variation in two captive and one wild population of rhesus monkeys. Two other loci ADA and NP were also examined and found to be monomorphic in the three populations. F-statistics and contingency chi-square analyses indicated that there was significant genetic differentiation among the populations. We also found that the mean heterozygosities were very similar in the three populations, in spite of the diverse breeding strategies. These data are important because rhesus monkeys are frequently used for biomedical research; and the genetic markers provide useful information for genetic management of captive colonies of nonhuman primates. 0 1992 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

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Genetic markers are indispensable for molecular and statistical genetic research involving nonhuman primates. Genetic markers must be used to ascertain parentage and to confirm the accuracy of pedigrees based solely on housing or demographic records; otherwise, the results of pedigree, linkage, or quantitative genetic analyses may be unreliable. Until recently, most genetic markers used in nonhuman primates were plasma proteins or isozyme polymorphisms, which were required in large numbers, because levels of genetic variation revealed by these markers were rather low. We compared the newer, PCR-amplified short tandem repeat markers (STRs) with a panel of classical biochemical polymorphic markers, for paternity determination among captive-bred rhesus monkeys. The STR markers exhibited an average genetic diversity of 64% and an expected paternity exclusion probability of 0.443. Both of these were greater than the average 54.5% genetic diversity and 0.298 exclusion probability exhibited by the biochemical markers. The STRs were much more efficient than the biochemical markers for parentage determination, since they required only half the amount of genetic typing data to resolve an average paternity case. Thus, the results of applying these two classes of genetic markers in paternity tests were somewhat different than expected on the basis of theoretical exclusion probabilities. These differences were probably due to inbreeding and other genetic differences among breeding colonies. Because they are more informative and provide rapid and efficient genetic data, STRs are now the method of choice for parentage determination and pedigree corroboration among nonhuman primates.