Classical genetic markers and DNA markers: A commensal marriage

Abstract

ABSTRACT. In this paper, we present an overview of classical genetic markers in nonhuman primates and then contrast the discriminatory powers of these markers with DNA markers. We have restricted the scope of our discussion to genetic markers found in blood, since they have been studied most extensively over the past 30 years. For example, immunoglobulin allotypes, complement markers, transferrins, and other protein markers can be identified using serum or plasma. Lymphocytes carry the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) markers, which are very polymorphic in most nonhuman primates. Lymphocytes are also used as a source of DNA. Finally, red blood cells carry an enormous array of blood group as well as isozyme markers. Our discussion will be limited to three species: rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta), baboons (Papio hamadryas), and chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), although the principles are applicable to all nonhuman primates.Key Words: Blood groups; Biochemical polymorphisms; Tandem repeats; Parentage determination. BLOOD GROUP MARKERSThe blood group markers were among the first genetic markers clearly defined in nonhuman primates (DOGCLEnY & STONE, 1971;STONE, 1967). Chimpanzees are polymorphic for the human ABO blood groups and can be typed for them using a simple agglutination test. However, the majority of reagents that detect polyrnorphic systems in humans do not detect genetic variation in nonhuman primates (SocHA, 1989). To type Old World monkeys, it is necessary to use operationally monospecific alloimmune sera (FREOERICI~ et al., 1990). A polyspecific blood typing serum would detect the products of several unidentifiable loci and, in this respect, would be similar to a multi-locus DNA fingerprinting probe. We have produced monospecific reagents that detect polymorphisms at 13 independent blood group loci in rhesus monkeys. Using these reagents, almost two million possible genotypes can be differentiated (STONE et al., 1987).These blood groups have been used for parentage testing (SULLIVAN et al., 1977) as shown in Table I. The offspring clearly inherited factors G1, H2, I1, and M3 from its father, since these are absent in the mother. The only male with all of these factors is designated the true father. This case demonstrates the power of markers which define genotypes over those which only characterize phenotypes.Blood groups have been used to study the relationship between male social dominance and reproductive success in a captive troop of rhesus monkeys (CURIE-COHEN et al., 1983).In this troop, the social structure remained relatively stable over an eight-year period, 366 W.H. STONE et al. although the number of adult males varied from 4 to 10. Using blood typing, we determined paternity for 48 of 77 offspring born into the colony. The 62~ success rate is remarkable given that this was a closed troop with considerable inbreeding. Our results (Table 2) indicated that the dominant male sired only 13-32~ of the offspring, even though he participated in 67~ of the observed copulations. Surprisingly, t...

Simple sequence repeat (SSR) polymorphisms for colony management and population genetics in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta)

“…Were it sufficient to identify the sires of 99% of all infants and to ensure that the probability that two individuals exhibit the same genotypes at all loci studied is as low as one in one million, then the six loci marked with an asterisk in Table III should suffice. These loci are highly informative and unlinked and could constitute the primary set for most cases, with other loci, even RFLPs and protein coding loci, being employed only when uncertainty persists, a strategy that Stone et al [1993] have termed "progressive paternity exclusion." Since far less certainty is adequate for sound genetic management practices than for human paternity litigation, the three most informative loci should suffice for routine colony management under most circumstances.…”

Toward developing a genome‐wide microsatellite marker set for linkage analysis in the rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta): Identification of 76 polymorphic markers

“…Microsatellite marker maps of the human genome [Dib et al, 1996] and other experimental organisms (such as the chicken, rat, and mouse) are widely available, facilitating linkage analysis in these species, but little research has been conducted to identify microsatellite markers in the rhesus macaque. Most publications report only a small number of microsatellite markers, which are either newly identified for that species or are human markers that have been tested in another primate species [Blanquer & Crouau, 1995;Coote & Bruford, 1996;Domingo et al, 1997;Kayser et al, 1995;Inoue & Takenaka, 1993;Jurka, 1995;Rogers et al, 1995;Stone et al, 1993]. As the position of microsatellite markers is often conserved between closely related mammalian species [Moore et al, 1991], and so many microsatellite markers have already been identified in the human, the testing of human microsatellites for development of marker sets in other nonhuman primate species is a valid approach.…”

Hypervariable single and multi-locus DNA polymorphisms for genetic typing of non-human primates

“…Statistical programmes for scoring banding patterns which take into account genetic factors affecting band inheritance and/or presence of a band on a fingerprint, allow a statistical probability to be assigned to the individuality of each fingerprint (KRAWCZAK & BOCKEL, 1992). Bands not found in either parent may be seen in an infant, following mutation (STONE et al, 1993). Such mutations in minisatellite sequences arise at a significant frequency in germline tissue (0.001 per fragment per gamete), but less so in somatic tissue.…”