Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) continue to provide essential services for various applications such as surveillance, data gathering, and data transmission from hazardous environments to safer destinations. This has been enhanced by the energy-efficient routing protocols that are mostly designed for such purposes. Gateway-based Energy-Aware Multi-hop Routing protocol (MGEAR) is one of the homogenous routing schemes that was recently designed to more efficiently reduce the energy consumption of distant nodes. However, it has been found that the protocol has a high energy consumption rate, lower stability period, and poorer data transmission to the Base station (BS) when it was deployed for a longer period of time. In this paper, an enhanced Heterogeneous Gateway-based Energy-Aware multi-hop routing protocol (HMGEAR) is proposed. The proposed routing scheme is based on the introduction of heterogeneous nodes in the existing scheme, selection of the head based on the residual energy, introduction of multi-hop communication strategy in all the regions of the network, and implementation of energy hole elimination technique. All these strategies are aiming at reducing energy consumption and extend the life of the network. Results show that the proposed routing scheme outperforms two existing ones in terms of stability period, throughputs, residual energy, and the lifetime of the network.

An in-depth study of Stable Election Protocol (SEP) revealed that, distance was not considered in selecting the cluster heads in the network. This allows a distant node that is selected as the head to dissipate huge energy in transmitting data to the Base station (BS). It was further observed that, whenever the Base station is relocated outside the field, the energy consumption of the network is high and hence shortening the lifetime of the network. In this paper, a Gateway-SEP protocol is proposed. The G-SEP modified the election probability of electing cluster heads by considering the distance, average distance and residual energy of the advanced nodes. The scheme also introduced a gateway node at the centre of the network and then installed the BS outside the field. Simulation results using MatLab R2017a showed that, the G-SEP performs better than Zonal-Stable Election protocol (ZSEP) in terms of coverage, stability period, throughput and network lifetime.

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Wireless sensor network basically is made up of several sensor nodes that sense physical quantities such as temperature and pressure in a physical environment, capture these quantities and relay the data to another node called the Base station(BS). The transmission of the sensed information from the deployment area to the BS has been observed to drain the limited energy resource of the sensor nodes. Some researchers are of the view that, placing the BS at the centre of the sensing field will sufficiently reduce the energy consumption during data transmission. Base on this, some of the descendants of DEEC protocol such as TDEEC (Threshold Distributed Energy Efficient Clustering) protocol also placed the BS at the centre of the deployment field to conserve network energy. So what happens to TDEEC scheme if it was to be deployed at a place such as military surveillance where the BS may be far from the sensing field? In this research work, a gateway-based TDEEC, G-TDEEC protocol is proposed. The new scheme introduced a gateway at the centre of the sensing area and then installed the BS far away from the sensing field. The cluster heads relay their data to the gateway which will then aggregate the data and then send the final report to the BS. Simulation was performed to assess the performance of the proposed protocol and the TDEEC scheme using MatLab 2017a. The simulation results showed that, the proposed protocol performed better than the existing scheme in terms of stability period, throughput, residual energy and the network lifetime.