This study evaluated the effects of three instructional methods—direct experience, cartographic representation, and verbal description—on the spatial knowledge of 30 adults who are blind. During four sessions, the participants learned a large, complex route in Madrid that included eight landmarks. In the first session, the experimenter guided the participants along the route, and in the subsequent sessions, the participants guided the experimenter. The results showed that the participants’ practical spatial knowledge was better when they learned the route with a tactile map than in either of the two other conditions.
Children and adolescents who are congenitally and adventitiously blind were divided into four age groups and introduced to two different unfamiliar environments (small and large) in a maximum of four trials. Spatial representation was assessed through the subjects’ construction of models and estimates of distance. It was found that age is the most important factor, while learning seems to play a subordinate role in the development of spatial representation of blind people.
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