Microsatellites, or simple sequence repeats (SSRs), have been the most widely applied class of molecular markers used in genetic studies, with applications in many fields of genetics including genetic conservation, population genetics, molecular breeding, and paternity testing. This range of applications is due to the fact that microsatellite markers are co-dominant and multi-allelic, are highly reproducible, have high-resolution and are based on the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). When first introduced, the development of microsatellite markers was expensive but now new and efficient methods of repetitive sequence isolation have been reported, which have led to reduced costs and microsatellite-technology has been increasingly applied to several species, including non-model organisms. The advent of microsatellite markers revolutionized the use of molecular markers but the development of biometric methods for analyzing microsatellite data has not accompanied the progress in the application of these markers, with more effort being need to obtain information on the evolution of the repetitive sequences, which constitute microsatellites in order to formulate models that fit the characteristics of such markers. Our review describes the genetic nature of microsatellites, the mechanisms and models of mutation that control their evolution and aspects related to their genesis, distribution and transferability between taxa. The implications of the use of microsatellites as a tool for estimating genetic parameters are also discussed.

In the malaria vector Anopheles gambiae Giles sensu stricto, two molecular forms denoted M and S are considered units of incipient speciation within this species. Very low hybrid frequencies and significant genetic differentiation have been found in sympatric M- and S-form populations. We studied the molecular form composition and the degree of genetic differentiation at 15 microsatellites in two samples of An. gambiae collected in two consecutive years from Bissau, Guinea Bissau. High frequencies of M/S hybrids (19-24%) were found in this area. Coincidently, very low levels of genetic differentiation were detected between forms when analysis involved microsatellites mapped at chromosome-3 (mean Fst, 0.000-0.002). The single exception was the X-linked AGXH678, for which high differentiation was measured (Fst, 0.158-0.301). This locus maps near the centromere of chromosome X, a low recombination region in which selection is likely to promote divergence between M and S forms. These results strongly suggest that the degree of isolation between M and S forms, considered the units of incipient speciation within An. gambiae, is not homogenous throughout the species distribution range.

Resumo -O objetivo deste trabalho foi verificar como o número de frutos comerciais por planta (NFr) se relaciona com 16 características morfológicas e agronômicas do mamoeiro (Carica papaya L.). O experimento foi realizado no ano agrícola de 2008/2009, utilizando o delineamento experimental de blocos aumentados. Foram avaliados 19 genótipos não comuns (acessos de germoplasma) e 3 comuns (variedades e híbridos), em 10 repetições. As correlações entre NFr e as características morfoagronômicas do mamoeiro foram desdobradas em efeitos diretos e indiretos. Observou-se alta variabilidade nas características avaliadas. As estimativas das correlações genotípicas foram maiores do que as fenotípicas, para todas as características. O NFr foi positivo e significativamente correlacionado com número de frutos por axila (NFrAx); e negativamente com diâmetro da cavidade do fruto, espessura da polpa, peso, comprimento (CFr) e diâmetro do fruto. Entretanto, a análise de trilha demonstrou que, entre essas características, NFrAx e CFr possuem maior efeito direto sobre NFr. Além disso, as características altura da planta, número de flores por pedúnculo e largura da folha são de mais fácil mensuração e manifestam-se antes da produção de frutos, o que as torna mais indicadas para a seleção indireta em programas de melhoramento genético dessa cultura.Termos para indexação: Carica papaya, características morfoagronômicas, componentes da produção, melhoramento genético, seleção indireta. Genetic correlation and path analysis for the number of commercial fruit per plant in papayaAbstract -The objective of this work was to determine how the number of commercial fruit per plant (CFrP) is related to 16 morphological and agronomical traits in papaya (Carica papaya L.). The experiment was carried out in the 2008/2009-crop season, using an augmented randomized block design. Nineteen non-common (germplasm accessions) and three common genotypes (varieties and hybrids) were evaluated with ten repetitions. Correlations between CFrP and morpho-agronomic traits were outspread in direct and indirect effects. High variability was found for the evaluated traits. The estimates of genetic correlations were higher than phenotypic correlations for all characters. CFrP was positively and significantly correlated with number of fruits per axil (NFAx) and negatively with the internal diameter of the cavity of the fruit, pulp thickness, fruit weight, fruit length (FrL) and fruit diameter. However, path analysis showed that, among this traits, NFAx and FrL have more direct effect on CFrP. Furthermore, plant height, number of flowers per peduncle and leaf width are more easily measured and are expressed before fruit production, making them more suitable for indirect selection in breeding programs of this crop.

Resumo -O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar os ganhos genéticos, preditos por meio de diferentes índices de seleção, em seis caracteres relacionados ao fruto, em 16 progênies de meios-irmãos de maracujá-amarelo. Foram utilizados: o índice clássico de Smith & Hazel (IC) e a distância genótipo-ideótipo de Cruz (IDGI), ambos com três pesos econômicos; o índice de ganhos desejados de Pesek & Baker (IGD); o índice livre de pesos e parâmetros de Elston (ILPP); e a seleção direta (SD). Observaram-se altas correlações genotípicas, de maior magnitude do que as fenotípicas, para algumas características, o que indica a existência de genes pleiotrópicos. Foram selecionadas cerca de 14% das plantas, para intercruzamento e formação de novo ciclo de seleção. Os critérios de seleção foram divergentes, inclusive para o mesmo índice de seleção com diferentes pesos econômicos, o que revela alta divergência das progênies estudadas. A SD permitiu a obtenção de ganhos preditos desejáveis para todos os caracteres, porém em magnitudes inferiores a outros índices. Embora o IC tenha possibilitado a obtenção de maiores ganhos genéticos em relação ao peso e ao número de frutos por planta, houve ganho negativo para alguns caracteres. O IDGI foi superior na predição de maiores ganhos genéticos, de forma equilibrada para todos os caracteres, enquanto o ILPP mostrou o pior desempenho.Termos para indexação: Passiflora edulis, meios-irmãos, melhoramento genético, variação genética. Selection on yellow passion fruit progenies by multivariate indicesAbstract -The objective of this work was to evaluate the genetic gains predicted through different selection indices in 16 half-sib progenies of yellow passion fruit, using six fruit characteristics. The selection criteria used were: the classical index of Smith & Hazel (CI) and the genotype-ideotype distance of Cruz (GID), both with three economic weights; the desired gain index of Pesek & Baker (DGI); the weight-free index of Elston (WFI); and the direct selection (DS). High genotypic correlations, of greater magnitude than the phenotypic ones, were found for some characteristics, which indicates the presence of pleiotropic genes. About 14% of the plants were selected for intercrossing and formation of a new cycle of selection. The selection criteria used were very different from each other, even for the same selection index with different economic weights, which shows the high progenies divergence. Desirable genetic gains were obtained with DS, but with lower magnitude than other indices. Although the CI was the criterion that showed the highest genetic gains for weight and number of fruits per plant, there were negative gains for some characteristics. The GDI was the best criterion to perform a greater predicted and balanced genetic gains for all the characteristics, while the WFI showed the worse performance.

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Genetic variation among sweet, purple, and yellow passion fruit accessions was assessed using inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR) markers. Eighteen ISSR primers were used to evaluate 45 accessions. The number of polymorphic bands per primer varied from 4 to 22, with 12.4 bands per primer on average. Nei's genetic distance between accessions ranged from 0.04 to 0.35. Clustering using the neighbor-joining method resulted in the formation of 11 major clusters. It was not possible to classify the accessions according to their geographic origin, showing that there is no structure in the gene bank. The overall mean Shannon-Weaver diversity index was 0.32, indicating good resolution of genetic diversity in passion fruit germplasm using ISSR markers. Our results indicate that ISSR can be useful for genetic diversity studies, to provide practical information for parental selection and to assist breeding and conservation strategies.

High yield stability and adaptability of yellow passion fruit varieties (Passifl ora edulis Sims. f. fl avicarpa Deg.) are highly desirable attributes when exploring different environments.This study aimed to evaluate the adaptability and yield stability of yellow passion fruit varieties using AMMI (additive main effects and multiplicative interaction) and other ancillary statistics.Twelve varieties were evaluated in eight environments. Analysis of variance showed effects attributable to the varieties (G), environment (E) and their interaction (G×E). The fi rst two multiplicative components of the interaction accounted for 69% of the sum of squares. The scores of the principal interaction components showed high variability for the environments relative to the variety effects. High varietal phenotypic stability was observed in three environments; which can be used in yellow passion fruit breeding programs for initial selection trials. A biplot-AMMI analysis and yield stability index incorporating the AMMI stability value and yield capacity in a single non-parametric index were useful for discriminating genotypes with superior and stable fruit yield. AMMI analysis also allowed for the identifi cation of more productive varieties in specifi c environments, leading to signifi cant increase in passion fruit productivity.

Here we described the development of the first set of Passiflora microsatellite loci isolated from an enriched genomic library. A sample of 43 individuals from 12 accessions of the yellow passion fruit was used to characterize those loci, which revealed up to 20 alleles per locus. Two loci were monomorphic. The observed (HO) and expected (HE) heterozygosities were very similar, as expected for a self‐incompatible species. Allelic diversity (HT) was 0.444. This set of markers will permit genetic structure analyses of cultivated and wild populations of Passiflora, and contribute for integrating genetic maps based on dominant markers, as they can provide bridge alleles.