Illegal and unsustainable trade in wildlife is a major conservation challenge. For Asian primates, economic and cultural traditions, and increased forest access mean that trade may have become detrimental for certain species. Slow and slender lorises (Nycticebus and Loris) are primates particularly prevalent in trade, determined until now by focused counts of lorises in regional markets. Here, we use international trade statistics and a participant-observer approach to assess culturally specific drivers for trade in lorises in South and Southeast Asia, to provide a broader context to help mitigate this practice. Analysis of international records for the last 30 years revealed that live animal trade was more prevalent than trade in body parts (slow lorises, 86.4%; slender lorises, 91.4%), with Laos, Cambodia, and Thailand the largest exporters. We then examine drivers of international and domestic trade based on long-term data from 1994-2009 in Sri Lanka, Cambodia, and Indonesia. We show that slender lorises are important in Sri Lankan folklore, but their use as pets and for traditional medicine is rare. Trade in Bengal slow and pygmy lorises in Cambodia for use in traditional medicines, a practice with deeply historical roots, is widespread. Despite its own set of myths about the magical and curative properties of lorises, trade in Javan, Bornean, and greater slow lorises in Indonesia is largely for pets. Conservation practices in Asia are often generalized and linked with the region's major religions and economies. We show here that, in the case of wildlife trade, culturally specific patterns are evident among different ethnic groups, even within a country. Revealing such patterns is the foundation for developing conservation management plans for each species. We suggest some participatory methods for each country that may aid in this process.

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The illegal and unsustainable trade in primates is increasingly recognized as an urgent threat to their conservation. From 1997 to 2008, 66 surveys were conducted at bird markets in Medan, North Sumatra, where primates are sold openly. In total,1953 primates of 10 species were observed, the most common of which were the long-tailed macaque Macaca fascicularis (774 ind.), the greater slow loris Nycticebus coucang (714 ind.) and the pig-tailed macaque M. nemestrina (380 ind.). Six of the species observed are totally protected in Indonesia, yet were openly traded. Trade in the remaining 4 species is regulated through a harvest and trade quota system, but no quotas are allotted for them to be traded as pets. Therefore, all trade in primates observed in these markets is deemed illegal. The Indonesian authorities should be encouraged to take action against this illegal trade in Medan. Markets selling illegal wildlife should be closed down, and individuals found illegally trading in primates should be prosecuted.

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We assessed the eVectiveness of national and international wildlife trade regulations in Asia by surveying four wildlife markets in Myanmar for bears and bear parts. Bears are protected in Myanmar and neighbouring countries, and are included in CITES Appendix I, precluding international trade. Three of the four wildlife markets were situated at the border with neighbouring countries (China and Thailand) whereas the fourth, situated in Myanmar's interior, also catered to international markets. During seven checks (1999)(2000)(2001)(2002)(2003)(2004)(2005)(2006) we recorded 1,200 bear parts, representing a minimum of 215 individual bears. Most items were from Asiatic black bears Ursus thibetanus but also sun bear Helarctos malayanus parts were oVered for sale. There were signiWcant temporal and spatial diVerences in what items were oVered for sale. Prices were low (USD 4-40 per item) and the total monetary value of the items for sale was USD 6,500-9,500 (not including gall bladders). Carcasses, skulls, canines, paws, claws, whole skins, pieces of skin, gall bladders and derivates, were openly displayed, with vendors being frank about prices, origin, and potential buyers. Only in the interior were prices quoted in the local currency; at the other three markets currencies of the neighbouring countries were used. Legal (international) trade in bears or bear parts from Myanmar is virtually non-existent, and the observed trade in bear parts strongly indicates a serious lack of enforcement eVort. International trade in bear parts from Myanmar is signiWcant, and open, and we conclude that the enforcement of wildlife trade regulations, at least when they concerns bear species, have by and large failed.

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The global trade in amphibians is widespread, involves hundreds of species, and has been implicated in amphibian population declines. The pet trade is the primary driver for population declines in one Southeast Asian newt species (Laotriton laoensis), and is a known threat to most of the 14 other known species from the region. Despite this, there has been little attempt to assess the impact of collection for the pet trade on Southeast Asian newts. We examined available import data from the US, Europe and Hong Kong, assessed current online trade and surveyed local pet traders within Southeast Asia. Large numbers of Southeast Asian newts are harvested from the wild to meet the demands of the international pet trade, with more than 7500 individual newts imported into the US alone during 2005-2014. Internet trade surveys revealed the global extent of the trade, with Southeast Asian newts for sale as pets in 15 countries throughout Europe, Asia and North America, at between~US$30-260 each. The trade in newts within Southeast Asia appears negligible in comparison. Urgent measures are required in order to conserve Southeast Asian newts but the lack of data on the species and number of individuals impacted by the pet trade makes it difficult to monitor and accurately assess its threat. We strongly recommend that all Southeast Asian newts be listed on the CITES. This measure should improve monitoring of trade and provides importing countries opportunity to curb trade in species that were illegally harvested, thus helping to safeguard wild populations.