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Towards a complexity-aware theory of change for participatory research programs working within agricultural innovation systems The MIT Faculty has made this article openly available. Please share how this access benefits you. Your story matters. Citation Douthwaite, Boru and Elizabeth Hoffecker. "Towards a complexityaware theory of change for participatory research programs working within agricultural innovation systems." Agricultural Systems 155 (July 2017

The parasitic angiosperms, Striga hermonthica and S. gesnerioides, obligate root parasites endemic in sub-Saharan Africa, constitute severe constraints to cereal and legume production in West and Central Africa. Over the years, a range of effective component technologies has been identified for Striga control in Africa. The potential of these technologies has been demonstrated under researcher-managed conditions. To promote farmer testing of the technologies, community workshops were conducted in 42 rural communities in Kaduna State, northern Nigeria. These revealed that agriculture was the main source of livelihood for most households. The three most important crops, maize, sorghum and pearl millet are attacked by S. hermonthica, regarded as the major constraint to crop production, often causing 70–100% crop loss. Farmers recognised two types of Striga damage (underground and aboveground), with greater damage being caused by underground Striga. Farmers attributed increasing incidence and severity of Striga damage to lack of capital, poor soil fertility, infestation of previously uninfested land by Striga seeds, and continuous cropping of host crops. The most widely used among the 15 existing Striga control techniques identified by the farmers were hoe weeding and hand pulling, application of inorganic fertilizer and manure, crop rotations, fallowing, and early planting. In assessing possible control measures farmers considered increased crop yield, reduced Striga reproduction and Striga emergence, greater crop vigour, and increased soil fertility as positive attributes. Negative attributes comprised increased labour requirement, higher costs, increased risk of crop damage or yield reduction, and lower quantity and quality of produce. Overall, a legume-cereal rotation was the most highly rated control option for S. hermonthica management evaluated by the farmers. The implications of these results are examined with respect to farmers' adoption and adaptation of Striga control options beyond the experimental plots.

Participatory Impact Pathways Analysis (PIPA) is a practical planning, and monitoring and evaluation approach developed for use with complex projects in the water and food sectors . PIPA begins with a participatory workshop where stakeholders make explicit their assumptions about how their project will achieve an impact. Participants construct problem trees, carry out a visioning exercise and draw network maps to help them clarify their 'impact pathways'. These are then articulated in two logic models. The outcomes logic model describes the project's medium term objectives in the form of hypotheses: which actors need to change, what are those changes and which strategies are needed to realise these changes. The impact logic model describes how, by helping to achieve the expected outcomes, the project will impact on people's livelihoods. Participants derive outcome targets and milestones which are regularly revisited and revised as part of project monitoring and evaluation (M&E). PIPA goes beyond the traditional use of logic models and logframes by engaging stakeholders in a structured participatory process, promoting learning and providing a framework for 'action research' on processes of change.

This paper asks: What have been the impacts of farmer-or community-led (informal) processes of research and development in agriculture and natural resource management in terms of food security, ecological sustainability, economic empowerment, gender relations, local capacity to innovate and influence on formal agricultural research and development institutions? An innovative conceptual framework was applied to a diverse set of farmer-led research initiatives in countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America to explore approaches, outcomes and impacts of informal agricultural research and development (ARD) facilitated by civil society organisations. Findings include the following: locally appropriate technical innovations emerging from these processes are readily taken up by other farmers; the most common channels of dissemination are farmer to farmer through informal networks and spaces created for farmer-researchers and other farmers to meet and exchange, such as innovation fairs; livelihood impacts are broad and substantial; local capacity to innovate is strengthened and institutionalisation through the formal sector has been limited. Lessons are drawn for future partnerships in promoting and supporting farmer-led research involving formal and informal ARD actors working with smallholder communities.

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