In 2008 we published the first set of guidelines for standardizing research in autophagy. Since then, research on this topic has continued to accelerate, and many new scientists have entered the field. Our knowledge base and relevant new technologies have also been expanding. Accordingly, it is important to update these guidelines for monitoring autophagy in different organisms. Various reviews have described the range of assays that have been used for this purpose. Nevertheless, there continues to be confusion regarding acceptable methods to measure autophagy, especially in multicellular eukaryotes. A key point that needs to be emphasized is that there is a difference between measurements that monitor the numbers or volume of autophagic elements (e.g., autophagosomes or autolysosomes) at any stage of the autophagic process vs. those that measure flux through the autophagy pathway (i.e., the complete process); thus, a block in macroautophagy that results in autophagosome accumulation needs to be differentiated from stimuli that result in increased autophagic activity, defined as increased autophagy induction coupled with increased delivery to, and degradation within, lysosomes (in most higher eukaryotes and some protists such as Dictyostelium) or the vacuole (in plants and fungi). In other words, it is especially important that investigators new to the field understand that the appearance of more autophagosomes does not necessarily equate with more autophagy. In fact, in many cases, autophagosomes accumulate because of a block in trafficking to lysosomes without a concomitant change in autophagosome biogenesis, whereas an increase in autolysosomes may reflect a reduction in degradative activity. Here, we present a set of guidelines for the selection and interpretation of methods for use by investigators who aim to examine macroautophagy and related processes, as well as for reviewers who need to provide realistic and reasonable critiques of papers that are focused on these processes. These guidelines are not meant to be a formulaic set of rules, because the appropriate assays depend in part on the question being asked and the system being used. In addition, we emphasize that no individual assay is guaranteed to be the most appropriate one in every situation, and we strongly recommend the use of multiple assays to monitor autophagy. In these guidelines, we consider these various methods of assessing autophagy and what information can, or cannot, be obtained from them. Finally, by discussing the merits and limits of particular autophagy assays, we hope to encourage technical innovation in the field

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We aimed to establish whether morphologic parameters were prognostically important in a large series of breast phyllodes tumors in Asian women. Of 335 phyllodes tumors diagnosed at the Department of Pathology, Singapore General Hospital, Singapore, between January 1992 and December 2002, 250 (74.6%) were benign, 54 (16.1%) borderline, and 31 (9.3%) malignant, based on histologic review of archival slides. Of the women, 43 (12.8%) experienced recurrences during the follow-up period. Recurrent disease was correlated with grade or classification (P = .028), stromal atypia (P = .016), stromal hypercellularity (P = .046), and permeative microscopic borders (P = .021). Multivariate analysis revealed that independent predictors of recurrence were pseudoangiomatous stromal hyperplasia (PASH) and margin status, whereby the presence of PASH and complete or negative margins reduced recurrence hazards by 51.3% and 51.7% respectively. The 7 women who died of disease during follow-up had malignant phyllodes tumor at the outset and experienced recurrences, and death was preceded by distant metastases.

Caffeine is one of the world's most consumed drugs. Recently, several studies showed that its consumption is associated with lower risk for nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), an obesity-related condition that recently has become the major cause of liver disease worldwide. Although caffeine is known to stimulate hepatic fat oxidation, its mechanism of action on lipid metabolism is still not clear. Here, we show that caffeine surprisingly is a potent stimulator of hepatic autophagic flux. Using genetic, pharmacological, and metabolomic approaches, we demonstrate that caffeine reduces intrahepatic lipid content and stimulates b-oxidation in hepatic cells and liver by an autophagy-lysosomal pathway. Furthermore, caffeine-induced autophagy involved down-regulation of mammalian target of rapamycin signaling and alteration in hepatic amino acids and sphingolipid levels. In mice fed a high-fat diet, caffeine markedly reduces hepatosteatosis and concomitantly increases autophagy and lipid uptake in lysosomes. Conclusion: These results provide novel insight into caffeine's lipolytic actions through autophagy in mammalian liver and its potential beneficial effects in NAFLD. (HEPATOLOGY 2014;59:1366-1380 See Editorial on Page 1235 C affeine is one of the most widely consumed drugs in the world. Although its effect on whole-body metabolism and fat oxidation has been well documented in both animals and humans, [1][2][3] little is known about its direct action on the liver.The liver is the major site for fatty acid oxidation (FAO) in mammals. Decreased turnover of hepatic lipid droplets can lead to the development of fatty liver disease in humans. 4 Recently, the rapid rise in the prevalence of obesity and diabetes in the general population has contributed to a parallel increase in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) in many parts of the world. Currently, it is estimated that up to 46% of the adult U.S. population may have hepatosteatosis. 5 Presently, there are no effective drug therapies for NAFLD, currently considered a risk factor for type II diabetes. 6 Recently, several studies have shown that caffeine intake in humans and animals is inversely correlated with severity of NAFLD and type II diabetes, 7-11 but the mechanism for this action is not known.

The rapid advancement of nanotechnology in recent years has fuelled a burgeoning interest in the field of nanoparticle research, in particular, its application in the medical arena. A constantly expanding knowledge based on a better understanding of the properties of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) coupled with relentless experimentation means that the frontiers of nanotechnology are constantly being challenged. At present, there seems to be heightened interest in the application of AuNPs to the management of cancer, encompassing diagnosis, monitoring and treatment of the disease. These efforts are undertaken in the hope of revolutionizing current methods of treatment and treatment strategies for a multifactorial disease such as cancer. This review will focus on the current applications of AuNPs in cancer management.

Metallothioneins (MTs) belong to a family of cysteine-rich, metal-binding intracellular proteins, which have been linked with cell proliferation. In this study, expression levels of the 8 known MT-1 and MT-2 functional isoforms in human invasive ductal breast cancer specimens were determined by RT-PCR. The expression profiles of the MT protein and MT-2A mRNA were further evaluated in 79 cases of human invasive ductal breast carcinoma by immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization, and correlated with cancer cell proliferation (determined by Ki-67 nuclear antigen immunolabeling). MT-1A, MT-1E, MT-1F, MT-1G, MT-1H, MT-1X and MT-2A but not MT-1B, were detected in breast cancer tissue samples. The MT-2A mRNA transcript was the highest among all the isoforms detected. A positive correlation was observed between MT-2A mRNA and MT protein expression with Ki-67 labeling (P = 0.0003 and P < 0.0001, respectively) but not with apoptosis (P = 0.1244 and P = 0.8189, respectively). Co-localization of the MT protein and Ki-67 nuclear antigen in breast cancer cells was demonstrated by double immunofluorescence staining. There was also significantly higher MT protein and MT-2A mRNA expression in histological grade 3 tumors than in histological grade 1 and 2 tumors. The finding that MT 2A appears to be the main isoform associated with cell proliferation in invasive ductal breast cancer tissues, may have therapeutic implications.