Solute carrier family 6 member 1 (SLC6A1) is abundantly expressed in the developing brain even before the central nervous system is formed. Its encoded GABA transporter 1 is responsible for the reuptake of GABA into presynaptic neurons and glia, thereby modulating neurotransmission. GABA transporter 1 is expressed globally in the brain, in both astrocytes and neurons. The GABA uptake function of GABA transporter 1 in neurons cannot be compensated for by other GABA transporters, while the function in glia can be partially replaced by GABA transporter 3. Recently, many variants in SLC6A1 have been associated with a spectrum of epilepsy syndromes and neurodevelopmental disorders, including myoclonic atonic epilepsy, childhood absence epilepsy, autism, and intellectual disability, but the patho-mechanisms associated with these phenotypes remain unclear. The presence of GABA transporter 1 in both neurons and astrocytes further obscures the role of abnormal GABA transporter 1 in the heterogenous disease phenotype manifestations. Here we examine the impact on transporter trafficking and function of twenty-two SLC6A1 variants identified in patients with a broad spectrum of phenotypes. We also evaluate changes in protein expression and subcellular localization of the variant GABA transporter 1 in various cell types, including neurons and astrocytes derived from human patient induced pluripotent stem cells. We found that a partial or complete loss of function represents a common disease mechanism, although the extent of GABA uptake reduction is variable. The reduced GABA uptake appears to be due to reduced cell surface expression of the variant transporter caused by variant protein misfolding, endoplasmic reticulum retention, and subsequent degradation. Although the extent of reduction of the total protein, surface protein, and the GABA uptake level of the variant transporters is variable, the loss of GABA uptake function and endoplasmic reticulum retention is consistent across induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cell types, including astrocytes and neurons, for the surveyed variants. Interestingly, we did not find a clear correlation of GABA uptake function and the disease phenotypes, such as myoclonic atonic epilepsy vs developmental delay, in this study. Together, our study suggests that impaired transporter protein trafficking and surface expression are the major disease-associated mechanisms associated with pathogenic SLC6A1 variants. Our results resemble findings from pathogenic variants in other genes affecting the GABA pathway, such as GABAA receptors. This study provides critical insight into therapeutic developments for SLC6A1 variant-mediated disorders and implicates that boosting transporter function by either genetic or pharmacologic approaches would be beneficial.
Leigh syndrome (LS) is a rare, inherited neurometabolic disorder that presents with bilateral brain lesions caused by defects in the mitochondrial respiratory chain and associated nuclear-encoded proteins. We generated human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) from three LS patient-derived fibroblast lines. Using whole-exome and mitochondrial sequencing, we identified unreported mutations in pyruvate dehydrogenase (GM0372, PDH; GM13411, MT-ATP6/PDH) and dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase (GM01503, DLD). These LS patient-derived iPSC lines were viable and capable of differentiating into progenitor populations, but we identified several abnormalities in three-dimensional differentiation models of brain development. LS patient-derived cerebral organoids showed defects in neural epithelial bud generation, size and cortical architecture at 100 days. The double mutant MT-ATP6/PDH line produced organoid neural precursor cells with abnormal mitochondrial morphology, characterized by fragmentation and disorganization, and showed an increased generation of astrocytes. These studies aim to provide a comprehensive phenotypic characterization of available patient-derived cell lines that can be used to study Leigh syndrome.
Research in the stem cell field has traditionally focused on understanding key transcriptional factors that provide pluripotent cell identity. However, much less is known about other critical non-transcriptional signaling networks that govern stem cell identity. Although we continue to gain critical insights into the mechanisms underlying mitochondrial morphology and function during cellular reprogramming – the process of reverting the fate of a differentiated cell into a stem cell, many uncertainties remain. Recent studies suggest an emerging landscape in which mitochondrial morphology and function have an active role in maintaining and regulating changes in cell identity. In this review, we will focus on these emerging concepts as crucial modulators of cellular reprogramming. Recognition of the widespread applicability of these concepts will increase our understanding of the mitochondrial mechanisms involved in cell identity, cell fate and disease.
Adaptive emotional responding relies on dual automatic and effortful processing streams. Dual-stream models of schizophrenia (SCZ) posit a selective deficit in neural circuits that govern goal-directed, effortful processes versus reactive, automatic processes. This imbalance suggests that when patients are confronted with competing automatic and effortful emotional response cues, they will exhibit diminished effortful responding and intact, possibly elevated, automatic responding compared to controls. This prediction was evaluated using a modified version of the face-vignette task (FVT). Participants viewed emotional faces (automatic response cue) paired with vignettes (effortful response cue) that signalled a different emotion category and were instructed to discriminate the manifest emotion. Patients made less vignette and more face responses than controls. However, the relationship between group and FVT responding was moderated by IQ and reading comprehension ability. These results replicate and extend previous research and provide tentative support for abnormal conflict resolution between automatic and effortful emotional processing predicted by dual-stream models of SCZ.
SummaryLeigh syndrome (LS) is a rare, inherited neuro-metabolic disorder that presents with bilateral brain lesions. This disease is caused by defects in the mitochondrial respiratory chain and associated nuclear-encoded proteins. We generated induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) from three widely available LS fibroblast lines and identified, through whole exome and mitochondrial sequencing, unreported mutations in pyruvate dehydrogenase (GM0372, PDH; GM13411, MT-ATP6/PDH) and dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase (GM01503, DLD). LS derived cell lines were viable and able to differentiate into key progenitor populations, but we identified several abnormalities in three-dimensional differentiation models of brain development. The DLD-mutant line showed decreased neural rosette (NR) formation, and there were differences in NR lumen area in all three LS lines compared to control. LS-derived cerebral organoids showed defects in neural epithelial bud generation and reduced size when grown for 100 days. Loss of cortical architecture and markers were detected at days 30 and 100. The MT-ATP6/PDH line produced organoid neural progenitor cells with an abnormal mitochondrial morphology characterized by fragmentation and disorganization, and demonstrated increased generation of astrocytes. These studies aim to provide a comprehensive phenotypic characterization of available patient-derived cell lines that could be used as LS model systems.
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