The Relationship between God’s Gender, Gender System Justification and Sexism

Howard, Simon; Oswald, Debra L.; Kirkman, Mackenzie S.

doi:10.1080/10508619.2020.1737420

Cited by 6 publications

(12 citation statements)

References 31 publications

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“…Individuals who perceive God as a White man were also more likely to perceive White male job candidates as particularly fit for leadership relative to White women, Black men, and Black women candidates. Taken together, the psychological research on gendered and racial conceptualizations of God supports arguments made by feminists theologians, Black liberation theologians, and behavioral scientists who suggest that conceptualizing God and Jesus as White and male, versus other gendered and racialized conceptualizations, serve to legitimize White male authority across various social and political contexts (Akbar, 1996;Christ, 2012;Daly, 1973;Howard et al, 2020;Roberts et al, 2020).…”

Section: Relationship Between Religion and Ideologies That Maintain S...mentioning

confidence: 64%

“Jesus was a White man too!”: The relationship between beliefs about Jesus’s race, racial attitudes, and ideologies that maintain racial hierarchies.

Howard

Vine

Kennedy

2022

Psychology of Religion and Spirituality

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Historians, Black liberation theologians, and Black/Pan-African nationalists have long argued that individuals' beliefs regarding Jesus' race are related to their racial attitudes and ideologies that maintain racial hierarchy. In the current study, we examined the relationship between beliefs about Jesus' race, racial attitudes, social dominance orientation (SDO), and colorblind racial ideology (CBRI). We found that individuals who believe Jesus is White were higher in both explicit and subtle forms of anti-Black prejudice (i.e., symbolic racism) and had higher feelings of warmth toward White people than individuals who believe Jesus is non-White. In addition, we found that those who believe Jesus is White, versus non-White, had a higher preference for group-based social hierarchy and were more likely to endorse CBRI. Analyses indicated that SDO and CBRI fully mediated the relationship between believing Jesus is White and explicit anti-Black attitudes. The relationship between believing Jesus is White and subtle anti-Black prejudice was also fully mediated by CBRI. These findings advance research on the relationship between religiosity and prejudice by demonstrating that individuals' racial conceptualizations of religious deities are related to how they feel toward racial groups and the extent to which they endorse ideologies that maintain social hierarchy. Implications, limitations, and future research directions are discussed.

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Section: Relationship Between Religion and Ideologies That Maintain S...mentioning

confidence: 64%

“Jesus was a White man too!”: The relationship between beliefs about Jesus’s race, racial attitudes, and ideologies that maintain racial hierarchies.

Howard

Vine

Kennedy

2022

Psychology of Religion and Spirituality

Self Cite

View full text Add to dashboard Cite

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“…Wall et al (2017), referring to a study comparing the attitudes and practices of men and women of working age, observed that men are increasing their contribution to household work, with greater equilibrium in the conjugal division of chores and a clear and observable change in gender roles. Hence, the small yet significant drop in scores was expected, since gender and role norms are becoming more fluid (Howard et al, 2020), with other countries showing similar patterns in modifying ambivalent sexism scores (Hammond et al, 2018). The growing attention to sexism and the non-binary lexicality of gender may be weakening the boundaries of sexism that focus upon heterosexual relations between men and women (Diamond, 2020;Estevan-Reina et al, 2020), diminishing sexist values.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 96%

“…However, efforts have been made to change this. Gender and role norms have become less conservative and more egalitarian in recent years (Howard et al., 2020). Also, we have observed in the last years an increased discussion about gender ideology, with an expansion of the lexicality of gender and sex.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Are We Getting Less Sexist? A Ten-Year Gap Comparison Analysis of Sexism in a Portuguese Sample

Gómes¹,

Gonçalves

Sousa

et al. 2021

Psychol Rep

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Widely and slowly, discrimination against women based upon gender has become socially unacceptable. However, less is known about how sexist beliefs have progressed in the last years and if we are responding to this social antagonizing of a sexist discourse. Our goal was to verify the existence of differences in ambivalent sexism and neosexism over a ten-year gap in a Portuguese adult sample and to assess possible modifications in the relationship between the variables. A cross-sectional, correlational study was conducted using two independent groups, with measures taken in 2009 and then in 2019. Both groups were invariant in terms of average age and proportion of sexes. Our results show a decrease in hostile and benevolent forms of sexism, while neosexism remains constant. The relationships between variables suggest that sexist beliefs are changing to accommodate subtler and modernized forms of sexism, like neosexism, that deny the existence of discrimination against women, resent discrimination complaints, and maintain a paternalistic view of women. Neosexism also seems to have a stronger correlation with hostile sexism than with benevolent forms of sexism in the male subsample. This relationship is stronger for the 2019 sample. These relationships suggest that sexism is more deeply rooted than we would like to admit and adapts to social discourse. Despite our best efforts, it is yet to be overcome.

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“…It includes eight statements (e.g., “In general, relations between men and women are fair”) which describe gender differences as inherent and inevitable, as well as the fairness of traditional gender roles. Gender SJ is associated with sexism (Howard et al, 2020 ) and gender essentialism (Brescoll et al, 2013 ). All these constructs outline crucial differences between men and women and support traditional gender roles, which serves a system-justifying function.…”

Section: System Justification Domains and Scalesmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…As previous studies have shown economic SJ is closely related to opposition to economic equality (Jost and Thompson, 2000 ) and as well as general SJ is associated with right-wing authoritarianism (Azevedo et al, 2017 ), social dominance orientation (Jylhä and Akrami, 2015 ), and a just world belief (Kelemen et al, 2014 ). Gender SJ is related to sexism (Howard et al, 2020 ) while political SJ is associated with political self-efficacy (Osborne et al, 2015 ) and readiness to protest (Osborne et al, 2019 ). The correlations between the tested scales and the specified variables will indicate the scales' convergent validity.…”

Section: Studymentioning

confidence: 99%

How Do Russians Perceive and Justify the Status Quo: Insights From Adapting the System Justification Scales

2021

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This paper aims to adapt the system justification scales (general, political, economic, and gender) for the Russian socio-cultural context and to carry out their psychometric analysis. In Study 1 (N = 450), the original items from four system justification scales on a Russian sample were tested. The results suggested that none of the original scales worked properly in Russia and all of them demonstrated weak fit indices. In Study 2 (N = 553), culturally specific grounds for system justification in the Russian context were highlighted and tested. The results of this study confirmed that all the adapted scales demonstrated a good fit to the data. In Study 3 (N = 1,011), the invariance of system justification scales and the convergent and discriminant validity of the scales was tested. The results confirmed that the general, political, and economic system justification scales demonstrated full invariance, while the gender system justification scale showed partial invariance for multigroup comparison. All the scales convergent and discriminant validity, which leads to consider them as an effective tool for measuring system justification in various types of social relationships in Russia. The role of socio-cultural characteristics in justifying the status quo is discussed.

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The Relationship between God’s Gender, Gender System Justification and Sexism

Cited by 6 publications

References 31 publications

“Jesus was a White man too!”: The relationship between beliefs about Jesus’s race, racial attitudes, and ideologies that maintain racial hierarchies.

“Jesus was a White man too!”: The relationship between beliefs about Jesus’s race, racial attitudes, and ideologies that maintain racial hierarchies.

Are We Getting Less Sexist? A Ten-Year Gap Comparison Analysis of Sexism in a Portuguese Sample

How Do Russians Perceive and Justify the Status Quo: Insights From Adapting the System Justification Scales

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