Organokines in Rheumatoid Arthritis: A Critical Review

Abstract

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a systemic autoimmune disease that primarily affects the joints. Organokines can produce beneficial or harmful effects in this condition. Among RA patients, organokines have been associated with increased inflammation and cartilage degradation due to augmented cytokines and metalloproteinases production, respectively. This study aimed to perform a review to investigate the role of adipokines, osteokines, myokines, and hepatokines on RA progression. PubMed, Embase, Google Scholar, and Cochrane were searched, and 18 studies were selected, comprising more than 17,000 RA patients. Changes in the pattern of organokines secretion were identified, and these could directly or indirectly contribute to aggravating RA, promoting articular alterations, and predicting the disease activity. In addition, organokines have been implicated in higher radiographic damage, immune dysregulation, and angiogenesis. These can also act as RA potent regulators of cells proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis, controlling osteoclasts, chondrocytes, and fibroblasts as well as immune cells chemotaxis to RA sites. Although much is already known, much more is still unknown, principally about the roles of organokines in the occurrence of RA extra-articular manifestations.

Organokines, Sarcopenia, and Metabolic Repercussions: The Vicious Cycle and the Interplay with Exercise

“…In health and against CVD, adiponectin exerts anti-inflammatory actions in obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, metabolic syndrome, and atherosclerosis, increasing insulin sensitivity. At the muscle level, there is an increase in free fatty acid oxidation and glucose uptake; at the liver level, adiponectin reduces gluconeogenesis [ 80 , 99 , 134 ].…”

“…However, it is known that SHBG is a glycoprotein synthesized mainly in the liver that binds and transports sex steroids to their target tissues. At the metabolic level, its serum levels are inversely associated with the occurrence of diabetes and fatty liver diseases and anti-inflammatory actions [ 99 , 141 , 142 ].…”

“…Also known as chrondomodulin-2, it was identified only as a promoter of neutrophil migration to inflamed tissues. This hepatokine has been correlated with regulatory actions on obesity, glucose metabolism, and immunological and inflammatory processes, in addition to the development of non-alcoholic fatty liver diseases [ 99 , 106 , 144 ].…”

“…These phenomena act indirectly to reduce visceral fat mass. Finally, from a functional perspective, this biomarker also contributes to muscle hypertrophy and strength [ 99 , 108 , 109 ].…”

Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) Model for Analysing the Role of Shear Stress in Angiogenesis in Rheumatoid Arthritis

“…RA impacts this lining, known as the synovium or synovial membrane. Owing to the involvement of many different variables, the pathophysiology of RA is still not fully understood [4]. However, angiogenesis is crucial to the progression of RA and results in the formation of new blood vessels [5][6][7][8].…”