Incidence of surrogacy in the USA and Israel and implications on women’s health: a quantitative comparison

Abstract

Purpose. Gestational surrogacy (GS) has been researched in multiple qualitative studies. In sharp contrast, quantitative aspects of the practice are conspicuously understudied. The present article aims to assess and compare the incidence of GS in the USA and Israel, two industrialized countries that have maintained active, formally regulated surrogacy practice, for over two decades. Method. The article is a secondary analysis of official GS figures published by the USA and Israel. Each dataset is analyzed vis-à-vis the respective country's population, adult population and number of deliveries and infants born, so as to devise local Incidence Scores. These scores are the basis for an inter-country comparison. Results. The incidence of GS is rising in both countries. Though USA surrogates are contracted by both local and international, heterosexual and gay, partnered and single intended parents, the relative incidence of GS is lower in the USA than in Israel, at a ratio of 2:3, even though in Israel only local heterosexual couples and single women may contract a gestational surrogate. Conclusion. GS emerges as reflective of its social surrounding, with the ratios between the countries' GS incidence resembling the ratios between their respective fertility rates. The paper ends with considering two risks facing gestational surrogates: the risk of not conceiving and not being paid, which is the outcome of most GS cycles, and the risk of carrying a multiple pregnancy, which is extremely prevalent in GS pregnancies, and sustaining the short-and longterm health consequences that are likely to accompany it.

The ART clock: Temporal limits to assisted reproduction

“…Although comprehensive national longitudinal data on US surrogacy do not exist, limited CDC data indicate increased rates of ART cycles utilizing surrogates in the USA (Birenbaum-Carmeli and Montebruno, 2019;Jacobson, 2018). This finding is confirmed by ethnographic research, according to which surrogacy is frequently framed as a miracle and a 'precious gift' by intended parents who experience success in using it to welcome a child into their lives (Berend, 2016;Deomampo, 2016;Majumdar, 2017;Jacobson, 2016;Pande, 2011;Ragone, 1994;Rudrappa, 2015;Teman, 2010).…”

Genetic identity as a regime of truth: Same sex and transnational surrogacy parenthood in the United States and Israel

“…Beyond the cost of extended stay abroad and detachment from family members and other sources of social support at a highly charge moment in the family's life, the procedure requires transporting the newborn to the Israeli consulate. Quite often, it also entails high medical expenses, especially if the baby was born prematurely (a rather common occurrence given the high rate of twin births in Israelis' gestational surrogacy, see Birenbaum-Carmeli and Montebruno, 2019). It also requires high expenditure for professional courier serviced and legal support.…”

Commercial surrogacy in the age of intensive mothering

“…US surrogacy is not federally regulated and, therefore, comprehensive figures and demographic data on participants involved in all US surrogacies are not available (Jacobson, 2018). However, since 2001 the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has collected data on annual assisted reproductive technology (ART) cycles occurring in US clinics utilizing a gestational surrogate (one implanted with embryos created using others’ gametes) (Birenbaum-Carmeli and Montebruno, 2019; CDC, 2019). In the latest figures available, 5521 US ART cycles involved a gestational surrogate, which represents almost 4% of all 2016 ART cycles; this is more than double the amount from 2007 (CDC, 2017: and author calculations).…”