Commercial surrogacy in the age of intensive mothering

Abstract

This study examines the navigation of intensive mothering ideology – the dominant cultural mothering schema in the US which places pressure on mothers to exclusively devote time and energy to their children, casting any other activity as problematic – within the lived experience of a unique cohort of mothers: women paid to gestate and birth babies for others. Based on in-depth interviews with US commercial surrogates, this study adds new depth to the body of research on intensive mothering by extending the arena of examination beyond work/family balance negotiations, where much of the literature is located. US surrogates understand surrogacy, which is rigorous labor, frequently takes time away from their families, and requires support from family members, not as a form of employment but as a ‘selfish pursuit,’ one they primarily engage in out of their own interests and desires. This study finds that the positive moral framework of surrogate labor as ‘altruistic self-sacrifice’ common within the US surrogacy industry and community, the fact that surrogacy is a relatively short-term ‘gig,’ and the healthy monetary compensation surrogates receive that serves as a tangible ‘thank you gift’ to families, help to buffer surrogates from full intensive mothering accountability. The experiences of US surrogates navigating mothering pressures while participating in surrogacy offer a window into how other contemporary US mothers might resist intensive mothering norms while engaging in non-familial and non-employment activities in their lives, activities such as hobbies or personal time away from family.

The ART clock: Temporal limits to assisted reproduction

“…The 'surrogacy addiction' that women reported was also shaped by the compensation they received; positive experiences with intended parents; and feelings of importance, joy and satisfaction they felt in the instrumental role they played in 'fulfilling someone's dream' of becoming a mother or father. These tangible benefits to surrogacy for surrogates are common findings in the ethnographic surrogacy literature in the USA and Israel (Berend, 2016;Jacobson, 2016Jacobson, , 2021Ragone, 1994;Smietana et al, 2021;Teman, 2010;Ziff, 2017Ziff, , 2019.…”

“…Surrogates reported engaging in multiple journeys not only because surrogacy allowed them to experience pregnancy again, but out of the joy that the surrogacy process itself brought to them. As I have discussed elsewhere ( Jacobson, 2016 , Jacobson, 2021 ), US surrogates’ motivation narratives centre on these aspects of enjoyment rather than compensation, although I have argued that compensation is nevertheless an essential feature of their participation in the US surrogacy market.…”

“…Controversial US domestic cases of surrogacy gone awry, such as Baby M or Johnson v. Calvert , have also captured attention, bringing sharp critique ( Markens, 2012 , Teman, 2019 ). A growing body of empirical research on surrogacy, however, posits that the situation is more complex, especially in the US surrogacy market ( Berend, 2016 , Jacobson, 2016 , Jacobson, 2021 , Riggs and Due, 2019 , Rudrappa, 2015 , Teman, 2019 , Ziff, 2017 ).…”

“…Researchers have established that US surrogates are most often white, married and lower/middle class mothers who have some financial stability. The majority are monetarily compensated (with an average of $25,000–30,000 for a successful ‘journey’ ending in a live birth) and report enjoying pregnancy and satisfaction with their surrogacy experiences ( Berend, 2016 , Jacobson, 2016 , Jacobson, 2021 , Ragone, 1994 , Ziff, 2017 , Ziff, 2019 ). In this paper, I am particularly interested in how US surrogates themselves strategize the timing of third-party pregnancy, and how they understand their surrogacy time investments.…”

“…I have found this to be a popular framing of surrogacy in the USA as have others ( Berend, 2016 , Jacobson, 2016 , Ragone, 1994 , Ziff, 2017 ). Part of this framing rests on the feelings of accomplishment and importance that women derive from their involvement in surrogacy ( Jacobson, 2021 , Teman, 2010 ). By extending their reproductive time via third-party pregnancy, these women provide a service that is understood by intended parents, many of whom have struggled to have a child, as life-changing and is deeply appreciated, which is sometimes demonstrated through compliments, attention and gifts in addition to monetary compensation.…”