Important Non-parental Adults and Positive Youth Development Across Mid- to Late-Adolescence: The Moderating Effect of Parenting Profiles

Abstract

Both parents and important non-parental adults have influential roles in promoting positive youth development (PYD). Little research, however, has examined the simultaneous effects of both parents and important non-parental adults for PYD. We assessed the relationships among youth-reported parenting profiles and important non-parental adult relationships in predicting the Five Cs of PYD (competence, confidence, connection, character, and caring) in four cross-sectional waves of data from the 4-H Study of PYD (Grade 9: N = 975, 61.1% female; Grade 10: N = 1,855, 63.4% female; Grade 11: N = 983, 67.9% female; Grade 12: N = 703, 69.3% female). The results indicated the existence of latent profiles of youth-reported parenting styles based on maternal warmth, parental school involvement, and parental monitoring that were consistent with previously identified profiles (authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved) as well as reflecting several novel profiles (highly involved, integrative, school-focused, controlling). Parenting profile membership predicted mean differences in the Five Cs at each wave, and also moderated the relationships between the presence of an important non-parental adult and the Five Cs. In general, authoritative and highly involved parenting predicted higher levels of PYD and a higher likelihood of being connected to an important non-parental adult. We discuss the implications of these findings for future research on adult influences of youth development and for programs that involve adults in attempts to promote PYD.

Social Skills Program for Adolescents in Vulnerable Social Contexts

“…Several studies have documented the importance of social support from teachers for interpersonal and cognitive development of adolescents (Amparo et al, 2008;Bowers et al, 2014;Sterret et al, 2011.). Nevertheless, family and colleagues are indispensable sources of affection, warmth and security that should be present in the lives of adolescents (Germano & Colaço, 2012;Valle et al, 2010).…”

“…In this sense, interpersonal relationships among adolescents with family members (Germano & Colaço, 2012), colleagues (Valle, Bravo, & Lopez, 2010) and teachers (Bowers et al, 2014;Sterret, Jones, McKee, & Kincaid, 2011), can be understood as a support network that provides support to deal with negative life events. In addition, the social support network can create opportunities for the development of skills and social-skills, especially for the socioeconomically vulnerable ones (Libório & Ungar, 2010).…”

Young women’s lived experience of participating in a positive youth development programme

“…Evidence suggests that caring relationships with at least one non-parental adult helps to build self-esteem and self-efficacy, and protects against risk (Eccles and Gootman, 2002;Laursen and Birmingham, 2003;Bowers et al, 2014). For successful PYD, young people need to view non-parental adults as a problemsolving resource and an 'open ear' (Bowers et al, 2014).…”

“…For successful PYD, young people need to view non-parental adults as a problemsolving resource and an 'open ear' (Bowers et al, 2014). The T&T programme counsellor, in particular, became a trusted source of support and advice about managing difficult emotions for many participants.…”

“…The discomfort of some facilitators may have been due to lack of training (Jessiman et al, 2012), underscoring the importance of investment in the development of relevant skills among adults expected to fulfil the role of 'caring adult' (Bowers et al, 2014). However, in most cases participants felt that the T&T facilitators treated them with more respect than the teachers at school: "YW1: They teachers like kinda belittle you, […] YW3: Like if they're talking, they don't expect you to say nuffink, yeah, you're just basically something little to them, you're just, 'nuffin', they just talk to you like anyhow they like, they don't care.…”