How Does Social Capital Associate With Being a Victim of Online Hate? Survey Evidence From the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, and Finland

Kaakinen, Markus; Keipi, Teo; Oksanen, Atte; Räsänen, Pekka

doi:10.1002/poi3.173

Cited by 13 publications

(8 citation statements)

References 86 publications

(161 reference statements)

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“…Cypriot, Korean, and Spanish adolescents showed lower odds of being perpetrators of online hate, and Thai and American adolescents had higher odds compared to German adolescents. Understanding national differences in the frequency rates of online hate is complex and most likely influenced by individual and wider societal factors (e.g., the presence of antihate speech laws, terrorist attacks) [18,39,40]. Age was positively associated with being a bystander to and perpetrator of online hate, indicating that adolescents become, with increasing age, more likely to witness online hate and also post or forward hateful or denigrating material online.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Associations between Witnessing and Perpetrating Online Hate in Eight Countries: The Buffering Effects of Problem-Focused Coping

Wachs

Wright

Sittichai

et al. 2019

IJERPH

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Online hate is a topic that has received considerable interest lately, as online hate represents a risk to self-determination and peaceful coexistence in societies around the globe. However, not much is known about the explanations for adolescents posting or forwarding hateful online material or how adolescents cope with this newly emerging online risk. Thus, we sought to better understand the relationship between a bystander to and perpetrator of online hate, and the moderating effects of problem-focused coping strategies (e.g., assertive, technical coping) within this relationship. Self-report questionnaires on witnessing and committing online hate and assertive and technical coping were completed by 6829 adolescents between 12 and 18 years of age from eight countries. The results showed that increases in witnessing online hate were positively related to being a perpetrator of online hate. Assertive and technical coping strategies were negatively related with perpetrating online hate. Bystanders of online hate reported fewer instances of perpetrating online hate when they reported higher levels of assertive and technical coping strategies, and more frequent instances of perpetrating online hate when they reported lower levels of assertive and technical coping strategies. In conclusion, our findings suggest that, if effective, prevention and intervention programs that target online hate should consider educating young people about problem-focused coping strategies, self-assertiveness, and media skills. Implications for future research are discussed.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Associations between Witnessing and Perpetrating Online Hate in Eight Countries: The Buffering Effects of Problem-Focused Coping

Wachs

Wright

Sittichai

et al. 2019

IJERPH

View full text Add to dashboard Cite

show abstract

“…On the other hand, trust could be a risk factor: People who are more trusting of others may be more prone to believe in the content of hateful comments. More so, high trust and a sense of belonging increase the risk of becoming a victim of online hate speech (Kaakinen, Keipi, Oksanen, & Räsänen, 2018). Nevertheless, basic societal qualities-such as social capital, mutual trust, and cooperativeness-should be taken into account when thinking about human resilience to hate speech.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Hate Speech Epidemic. The Dynamic Effects of Derogatory Language on Intergroup Relations and Political Radicalization

Bilewicz

Soral

2020

Political Psychology

159

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Exposure to derogatory language about immigrants and minority groups leads to political radicalization and deteriorates intergroup relations. This article addresses the psychological processes responsible for these effects as well as those involved in hate‐speech proliferation in contemporary societies and discusses the factors that constrain its growth. We propose that frequent exposure to hate speech has severe effects on emotional, behavioral, and normative levels. Exposure to hate speech results in empathy being replaced by intergroup contempt as a dominant response to others—it is both a motivator and a consequence of derogatory language. The increased presence of hate speech in one's environment creates a sense of a descriptive norm that allows outgroup derogation. This leads to the erosion of existing antidiscriminatory norms. Finally, through a process of desensitization, hate speech reduces people's ability to recognize the offensive character of such language. Based on empirical evidence from the fields of social psychology and psychology of emotion and aggression, we propose a model that explains the described processes, and we trace the dynamics of this model using an agent‐based modeling approach. We show that the mechanisms potentially effective in constraining hate‐speech proliferation (empathy, norms) are eroded by hate speech itself. We argue that through basic psychological dynamics, societies become more accepting of derogatory language and less accepting of immigrants, as well as religious, ethnic, and sexual minorities.

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“…While the preceding mechanisms have a common root, opposition sparking hostility, there is another intriguing explanation for the statistical association. Perpetrators (and victims; Kaakinen, Keipi, Oksanen, & Räsänen, 2018) of online hate tend to have certain dispositions (Kurek, Jose, & Stuart, 2019; McCreery & Krach, 2018), which can be clustered across geographical areas (for psychological traits of US regions, see Rentfrow et al, 2013). It is reasonable to assume that a region's dispositional hostility can foster polarization and cross‐group rejection.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Online hostility can emerge from current local events (Williams & Burnap, 2015) or local history (Payne, Vuletich, & Brown–Iannuzzi, 2019). For example, Kaakinen, Oksanen, and Räsänen (2018) observed that the Paris terror attack from November 2015 was associated with a rise in fear and intergroup hostility among Finnish internet users, who related to the pre–attack situation of their fellow Europeans (c.f., Oksanen et al, 2018). According to the authors, this finding is in line with the general observation that threatening societal events serve as a trigger for outgroup blaming and intergroup hostilities.…”

Section: Regional Attitudes Towards Minorities and Online Hostilitymentioning

confidence: 99%

Interregional and intraregional variability of intergroup attitudes predict online hostility

2020

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To what extent are intergroup attitudes associated with regional differences in online aggression and hostility? We test whether regional attitude biases towards minorities and their local variability (i.e. intraregional polarization) independently predict verbal hostility on social media. We measure online hostility using large US American samples from Twitter and measure regional attitudes using nationwide survey data from Project Implicit. Average regional biases against Black people, White people, and gay people are associated with regional differences in social media hostility, and this effect is confounded with regional racial and ideological opposition. In addition, intraregional variability in interracial attitudes is also positively associated with online hostility. In other words, there is greater online hostility in regions where residents disagree in their interracial attitudes. This effect is present both for the full resident sample and when restricting the sample to White attitude holders. We find that this relationship is also, in part, confounded with regional proportions of ideological and racial groups (attitudes are more heterogeneous in regions with greater ideological and racial diversity). We discuss potential mechanisms underlying these relationships, as well as the dangers of escalating conflict and hostility when individuals with diverging intergroup attitudes interact. © 2020 The Authors. European Journal of Personality published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of European Association of Personality Psychology

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How Does Social Capital Associate With Being a Victim of Online Hate? Survey Evidence From the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, and Finland

Cited by 13 publications

References 86 publications

Associations between Witnessing and Perpetrating Online Hate in Eight Countries: The Buffering Effects of Problem-Focused Coping

Associations between Witnessing and Perpetrating Online Hate in Eight Countries: The Buffering Effects of Problem-Focused Coping

Hate Speech Epidemic. The Dynamic Effects of Derogatory Language on Intergroup Relations and Political Radicalization

Interregional and intraregional variability of intergroup attitudes predict online hostility

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