Environmental Risk Factors of Pancreatic Cancer

Abstract

Despite the advancement in medical knowledge that has improved the survival rate of many cancers, the survival rate of pancreatic cancer has remained dismal with a five-year survival rate of only 9%. The poor survival of pancreatic cancer emphasizes the urgent need to identify the causes or the risk factors of pancreatic cancer in order to establish effective preventive strategies. This review summarizes the current evidence regarding the environmental (non-genetic, including lifestyle, and clinical factors) risk factors of pancreatic cancer. Based on the current evidence, the established risk factors of pancreatic cancer are cigarette smoking, chronic diabetes, and obesity. Other strong risk factors include low consumption of fruits and vegetables, excess consumption of alcohol, poor oral hygiene, and the lack of allergy history. In the future, more studies are needed to identify additional risk factors of pancreatic cancer, especially the modifiable risk factors that could be included in a public health campaign to educate the public in order to reduce the incidence of pancreatic cancer.

Adherence to the 2018 World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research cancer prevention recommendations and pancreatic cancer incidence and mortality: A prospective cohort study

“…1 The exact mechanisms for pancreatic carcinogenesis remain unclear, but lifestyle factors have been suggested to play a critical role. 2,3 Although numerous observational studies have investigated the association between individual lifestyle factors and pancreatic cancer risk, 3 they fail to consider the potential interactions among these factors. Hence, investigating the association between lifestyle patterns (eg, Mediterranean diet), in which various factors are integrated into an entirety, and pancreatic cancer risk is essential for understanding the role of lifestyle behaviors in the etiology of this cancer.…”

Low glucose enhanced metformin’s inhibitory effect on pancreatic cancer cells by suppressing glycolysis and inducing energy stress via up-regulation of miR-210-5p

“…Hyperglycemia, hyperinsulinemia, and chronic inflammation are possible mechanisms that link DM and cancer [ 5 ]. PC is particularly closely related to DM, as DM is not only a well-established risk factor of PC but also may be a consequence of PC [ 6 ]. Up to 85% of patients with PC have impaired glucose tolerance or DM when they are diagnosed [ 7 ].…”

Coffee Consumption and Pancreatic Cancer Risk: A Meta-Epidemiological Study of Population-based Cohort Studies

“…Based on the current evidence, the established risk factors of pancreatic cancer are cigarette smoking, chronic diabetes, and obesity (Tsai and Chang, 2019). All 12 studies finally selected for meta-analysis reported the RRs adjusted for smoking status.…”

“…While coffee is a popular beverage globally, Zhao et al, (2020) concluded that 'there is highly suggestive evidence for an inverse association between coffee intake and risk of liver and endometrial cancer.' But Tsai and Chang (2019) concluded that 'the association between coffee and pancreatic cancer is unclear.' Table 1 summarizes the results of seven systematic reviews of observational studies that evaluated the association between coffee consumption and pancreatic cancer risk (Dong et al, 2011;Yu et al, 2011;Turati et al, 2012;Ran et al, 2016;Wang et al, 2016;Nie et al, 2016;Li et al, 2019).…”